What is remote sensing?

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object without physical contact.

It includes photographic and digital remote sensors.

Development of remote sensing

The term remote sensing was coined in the early 1960s by geographers in the Office of Naval Research of USA to apply to the information derived from photographic and nonphotographic instruments.

Remote sensing prior to 1960

Aristotle (2300 years ago): camera obscura. 1839 - photographic process (Daguerre and Niepce) - daguerrotype. 1859 - first known balloon photograph (Tournachon - Nadar, France). Air photograph - developed for military purposes. Between WW1 and WW2, civilian use of air photographs.

Remote sensing since 1960

1960 - TIROS-I: the first meteorological satellite: low resolution sensor 1972 - ERTS-1 (changed to Landsat in 1975): MSS and HBV 1981 - NOAA: AVHRR 1982 - Landsat-4: TM 1986 - SPOT-1: PAN and XS since late 1980s: more earth observation satellites, e.g. Russian, Indian, Japanese, Chinese and others

How does remote sensing work?

Remote sensing works by recording and measuring electromagnetic radiation from the target. This recording and measurement can be taken by airborne or satellite sensors. Remotely sensed images are rectified and enhanced to show information better. We interpret the images to get information on given locations for mapping, management e.t.c.

Passive and active remote sensing

Passive remote sensing: the sensor detects the reflectance of sunlight from the surface e.g. photographs, multispectral scanners Active remote sensing: the sensor detects the reflectance of the signal sent by the remote sensing system e.g. RADAR

Communication and data collection systems

Remotely sensed data has to be transmitted back to the Earth. A network of satellite receiving stations have been established over the world to receive data. Some satellite data can be directly received by small instruments. Data are available through variable commercial channels (e.g. EOSAT).

Electromagnetic energy
Electromagnetic energy - a dynamic form of energy that is caused by the oscillation or acceleration of an electrical charge All natural and synthetic substances above absolute zero (0 K, or Kelvin, = 273.16C) emit a range of electromagnetic energy. Practically all the natural electromagnetic energy injected into the earth system is produced by the sun.

Methods of energy transfer

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work: mechanical, chemical, electrical, heat, etc. The result of the work being done: energy transfer. Energy transfers can be accomplished by one of three methods: conduction, convection and radiation.

The source of EMR

All matter in the universe that is warmer than 0 K (273.16C) emit electromagnetic energy. Molecular motion stops at 0 K thus it is called absolute zero. All objects in every day life are warmer than the absolute zero. Thus, everything is a source of EMR.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Wavelength units: 1 mm = 1000 m; 1 m = 1000 nm.

Radio Waves: 10 cm to 10 km wavelength.

Microwaves: 1 mm to 1 m wavelength. The microwaves are further divided into different frequency (wavelength) bands: (1 GHz = 109 Hz)

P band: 0.3 - 1 GHz (30 - 100 cm)

L band: 1 - 2 GHz (15 - 30 cm) S band: 2 - 4 GHz (7.5 - 15 cm) C band: 4 - 8 GHz (3.8 - 7.5 cm) X band: 8 - 12.5 GHz (2.4 - 3.8 cm) Ku band: 12.5 - 18 GHz (1.7 - 2.4 cm) K band: 18 - 26.5 GHz (1.1 - 1.7 cm) Ka band: 26.5 - 40 GHz (0.75 - 1.1 cm)

Infrared: 0.7 to 300 m wavelength. This region is further divided into the following bands: Near Infrared (NIR): 0.7 to 1.5 m. Short Wavelength Infrared (SWIR): 1.5 to 3 m. Mid Wavelength Infrared (MWIR): 3 to 8 m. Long Wanelength Infrared (LWIR): 8 to 15 m. Far Infrared (FIR): longer than 15 m. The NIR and SWIR are also known as the Reflected Infrared, referring to the main infrared component of the solar radiation reflected from the earth's surface. The MWIR and LWIR are the Thermal Infrared.

Visible Light: This narrow band of electromagnetic radiation extends from about 400 nm (violet) to about 700 nm (red). The various colour components of the visible spectrum fall roughly within the following wavelength regions: Red: 610 - 700 nm Orange: 590 - 610 nm Yellow: 570 - 590 nm Green: 500 - 570 nm Blue: 450 - 500 nm Indigo: 430 - 450 nm Violet: 400 - 430 nm Ultraviolet: 3 to 400 nm X-Rays and Gamma Rays

Infrared remote sensing makes use of infrared sensors to detect infrared radiation emitted from the Earth's surface. The middle-wave infrared (MWIR) and longwave infrared (LWIR) are within the thermal infrared region. These radiations are emitted from warm objects such as the Earth's surface. They are used in satellite remote sensing for measurements of the earth's land and sea surface temperature. Thermal infrared remote sensing is also often used for detection of forest fires.

REMOTE SENSING PLATFORM

In spaceborne remote sensing, sensors are mounted on-board a spacecraft (space shuttle or satellite) orbiting the earth. Spaceborne remote sensing provides the following advantages: Large area coverage; Frequent and repetitive coverage of an area of interest; Quantitative measurement of ground features using radiometrically calibrated sensors; Semiautomated computerised processing and analysis; Relatively lower cost per unit area of coverage. Satellite imagery has a generally lower resolution compared to aerial photography. However, very high resolution imagery (up to 1-m resolution) is now commercially available to civilian users with the successful launch of the IKONOS-2 satellite in September 24, 1999.

Satellite Orbits
Geostationary Orbit: The satellite appears stationary with respect to the Earth's surface.

Airborne Remote Sensing

In airborne remote sensing, downward or sideward looking sensors are mounted on an aircraft to obtain images of the earth's surface. An advantage of airborne remote sensing, compared to satellite remote sensing, is the capability of offering very high spatial resolution. The disadvantages are low coverage area and high cost per unit area of ground coverage. It is not costeffective to map a large area using an airborne remote sensing system. Airborne remote sensing missions are often carried out as one-time operations, whereas earth observation satellites offer the possibility of continuous monitoring of the earth.

Analog aerial photography, ideography, and digital photography are commonly used in airborne remote sensing. Synthetic Aperture Radar imaging is also carried out on airborne platforms.

The radar pulse is scattered by A radar pulse is transmitted from the ground targets back to the the antenna to the ground antenna.

It is not feasible for a spacecraft to carry a very long antenna which is required for high resolution imaging of the earth surface. To overcome this limitation, SAR capitalises on the motion of the space craft to emulate a large antenna (about 4 km for the ERS SAR) from the small antenna (10 m on the ERS satellite) it actually carries on board.

Imaging geometry for a typical strip-mapping synthetic aperture radar imaging system. The antenna's footprint sweeps out a strip parallel to the direction of the satellite's ground track.

Interaction between Microwaves and Earth's Surface

When microwaves strike a surface, the proportion of energy scattered back to the sensor depends on many factors: Physical factors such as the dielectric constant of the surface materials which also depends strongly on the moisture content; Geometric factors such as surface roughness, slopes, orientation of the objects relative to the radar beam direction; The types of landcover (soil, vegetation or man-made objects). Microwave frequency, polarisation and incident angle.