Building Construction
Introduction
Fire departments pride themselves in ability to launch aggressive interior structural attacks Often, buildings collapse without a visual warning Firefighters must understand how fire travels Departments need more training on building construction
13.2
Types of Loads
Two broad categories:
Dead loads Live loads
Figure 13-2 The steel stairs and air-conditioning unit apply a concentrated load on this roof structure. Also note the potential instability of the air-conditioning unit placed on cement blocks.
13.5
Imposition of Loads
Loads must be transmitted to structural elements Terms associated with imposition:
Axial load Eccentric load Torsion load
13.6
Figure 13-5 There are three types of loads that can be transmitted through a structural member: axial, eccentric, and torsion.
13.7
Forces
Loads imposed on materials create stress Stress and strain: defined as forces applied to materials:
Compression Tension Shear
Several variables determine amount of time a material can resist gravity and fire degradation
13.8
Figure 13-6 Loads are applied to a structural member as compression, tension, and shear forces.
13.9
Forces (contd.)
Several variables determine amount of time a material can resist gravity and fire degradation
Material type and mass Surface-to-mass ratio Overall load being imposed BTU development Type of construction (assembly method)
13.10
Forces (contd.)
More variables
Alterations (undersigned loading) Age deterioration/care and maintenance of the structure Firefighting impact loads Condition of fire-resistive barriers
13.11
Structural Elements
Buildings are an assembly of structural elements designed to transfer loads to the earth Can be defined simply as:
Beams Columns Walls Connections
13.12
Beams
Transfers loads perpendicular to its length Types of beams:
Simple beam Continuous beam Cantilever beam Lintel Girder Joist Truss and Purlin
13.13
Figure 13-7 A beam transfers a load perpendicular to the loadcreating compressive and tensile forces within the beam.
13.14
Columns
Any structural component that transmits a compressive force parallel through its center Typically support beams and other columns Generally vertical supports of building Can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal
13.15
Walls
Really long, but slender, column Two categories:
Load-bearing walls
Carries weight of beams, other walls, floors, roofs, other structural elements Also carries weight of the wall itself
Non-load-bearing walls
Need only support its own weight Example: partition wall between two stores in a strip mall
13.16
Connections
Weak link as it relates to structural failure during fires
Often small, low-mass material that lacks capacity to absorb heat
Three categories:
Pinned Rigid Gravity
13.17
Table 13-1 Performance of Common Building Materials under Stress and Fire
13.19
Wood
Most common building material Relatively inexpensive Marginal resistance to forces compared to weight Native wood with more mass takes longer to burn before strength is lost Engineered wood
Plywood delaminates when exposed to fire Some composites fail through exposure to heat without burning
13.20
Steel
Mixture of carbon and iron ore Excellent tensile, shear, and compressive strength Popular choice for:
Girders Lintels Cantilevered beams Columns
Concrete
Mixture of portland cement, sand, gravel, and water Excellent compressive strength All concrete contains some moisture Under heat, moisture expands and causes concrete to crack and spall Concrete can stay hot long after the fire is out
13.22
Masonry
Common term that refers to brick, concrete block, and stone Used to form load-bearing walls Veneer wall supports its own weight Mortar holds units together and have little or no tensile or shear strength Excellent fire-resistive qualities
13.23
Composites
Combination of the four basic materials Includes plastics, glues, and assembly techniques Example: wooden I beams composed of wood chips and veneers pressed together in I-shape
Structurally stronger but fail quickly when heated No fire contact required
Steel expands faster than wood, causing stress at intersection between the two materials
13.24
Figure 13-11 A composite truss. Rapid heating will cause the stamped-steel to separate from the wood chords.
13.25
Broad classifications are dangerously incomplete for firefighters Buildings are built to meet certain codes 13.26
Typically large multi-storied structures with multiple exit points Examples: arenas, high-rises, World Trade Center
13.27
Figure 13-15 A typical Type I building, with structural members designed to resist the effects of fire for three to four hours. This building is of reinforced concrete construction.
13.28
Figure 13-16 Buildings of Type II construction will have structural elements with little or no protection from the effects of fire. Remember, in the event of a fire, these unprotected steel structural members may fail and collapse quickly.
13.30
Masonry walls hold heat inside, floors and roof beams gravity fit
13.31
Figure 13-17 Buildings of Type III, ordinary construction, are common throughout North America. These typical Downtown USA buildings provide many challenges to firefighters, such as void spaces and common walls allowing rapid fire extension and little structural protection.
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Figure 13-19 Type IV buildings, heavy timber construction, have large wood structural elements with great mass. The mass of these structural members requires a long burn time for failure. The connections, usually steel, are the weak points in this type of construction.
13.34
Figure 13-20 Wood and heavy timber beams were often fire-cut so that a fire-damaged, sagging floor would simply slide out of the wall pocket in order to preserve the wall.
13.35
Balloon frame versus platform framing Platform framing creates fire stopping Gypsum board protects wood frame members Fires that penetrate wall, floor, attic spaces become significant collapse threat 13.36
Figure 13-21 The wood frame structure, Type V construction, is the most common type of construction in North America.
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Figure 13-24 This lightweight steel home is built similar to a Type V. OSB sheeting gives the steel rigidity to torsional loads such as wind.
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13.41
Trusses
Truss roof collapses have killed many firefighters Come in many styles and shapes Wood trusses commonly used for roof assemblies and floor assemblies Steel trusses no less susceptible to collapse than wood trusses
13.42
Figure 13-26 Wood trusses provide a large surface-to-mass ratio, fuel load, and void spacesthree of the worst structural collapse contributors a firefighter will encounter during structural firefighting operations.
13.43
Void Spaces
Trusses create large void areas Fires are able to spread horizontally Fires can start in void spaces because of electrical and utility problems In Type III ordinary construction, voids are numerous
13.44
Roof Structures
Flat, pitched, or inverted Many factors determine construction Roof style may allow a large volume of fire to develop Some dormers are actually aesthetic and fool ventilation crews
13.45
Figure 13-30 Some common roof framing styles used in wood frame or ordinary construction.
13.46
Stairs
Believing stairways are durable is a dangerous assumption Stairs are built offsite and hung in place with metal strapping Stairs are made with lightweight engineered wood products
Fail quickly when heated
13.47
Parapet Walls
Extension of a wall past top of roof Used to help hide unsightly roof equipment Free standing with little stability Typically collapse when roof starts to sag Historically, dozens of firefighters have been killed by collapsing parapets
13.48
Figure 13-34 This electrical service entrance and attached sign may be the eccentric load causing an early failure of this parapet wall.
13.49
13.50
Time
No time limits for firefighting operations Truisms have emerged:
The lighter the structural element, the faster it comes down The heavier the imposed load, the faster it comes down Wet (cooled) steel buys time Gravity and time are constant There is no window of time Brown or dark smoke from lightweight structures means time is up
13.52
Figure 13-35 A minimum collapse zone should be 1 times the height of the building.
13.54
Lessons Learned
Many firefighters have been killed as a result of building collapse Firefighters must understand the buildings in which they fight fires Knowledge of building construction starts with understanding of loads, forces, and materials Five class types are being challenged by new construction methods No rule for how long a building will last on fire
13.55