Week 2

MZA@UTPChemEFluidMech
Fluid Statics
Week 2
Outline
Principles of fluid statics
Pressure depth relationships
Pressure measurement
Pressure force on surface
Buoyancy

Learning Outcome
At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define the term fluid statics
2. Measure the pressure using manometers
3. Determine buoyancy forces

Fluid Statics
Deal with forces applied by fluids
at rest or in rigid-body motion

(Rigid body motion - fluid that is moving in such a
manner that there is no relative motion between adjacent
particles)

Example:
Water in a tank.
Water in a lake (Water actually move very slowly in the lake.
However the movement of water relative to each other is nearly
zero that water is seen as static)


No shear stresses involved.
(Assumption: fluid element moves as a rigid body,
i.e. there is no relative motion between adjacent element)

The only forces develop on the surfaces of the
particles will be due to pressure
Types of pressure defined in fluid mechanics:

Absolute pressure
Gauge pressure
Vacuum pressure
Absolute pressure, P
abs

Actual pressure at a given
position
Is measured relative to absolute
vacuum (absolute zero
pressure)

Gage pressure, P
gauge

The difference between the
absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure
Used in most pressure-
measuring device.
P
gauge

P
atm

Absolute vacuum, P
abs
= 0
P
abs

Vacuum pressure, P
vac

Pressures below P
atm

Also known as P
gauge

P
vac

Absolute vacuum, P
abs
= 0
P
abs

P
atm

P
gauge

P
atm

P
abs

P
vac

Absolute vacuum, P
abs
= 0
P
abs

Absolute vacuum, P
abs
= 0
P
abs
= P
atm
P
vac
P
abs
= P
atm
+ P
gauge
Example
a) A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 24 kPa at
location where the local atmospheric pressure is 92 kPa.
Determine P
abs
.

b) If the absolute pressure in a tank is 20 psi at normal
atmospheric pressure, determine P
gage
.

c) Gage pressure readings shows a value of 60 kPa.
What does it means? And, determine P
abs
.
Solution
a) P
gauge
= 24 kPa, P
atm
= 92 kPa
P
abs
= 24 + 92 = 116 kPa

b) P
gauge
= P
abs
- P
atm

= 20-14.7
= 5.3 psi
c) P
gage
= 60 kPa
It means vacuum since the value is negative.
(The same if mention as P
vac
= 60 kPa)
P
abs
= P
gauge
+P
atm
= 101.3 60 = 41.3 kPa
In a stationary fluid the pressure is exerted
equally in all directions and is referred to as the
static pressure.
P
1

P
2

P
4

P
3

Fluid
An element of fluid
In a moving fluid, the static pressure is exerted on
any plane parallel to the direction of motion.

Moving fluid P
Pressure acting at a point in a fluid is the same at
all directions.
How does the pressure in a fluid in which there are
no shearing stresses vary from point to point?

To answer this question consider a small
rectangular element of fluid removed from some
arbitrary position within the mass of fluid of
interest
There are two types of forces acting on this
element:
1. Surface forces due to the pressure,
2. Body force equal to the weight of the
element.

z = Az
z = 0
Ax
Ay
dW
P
z=0

P
z= Az
Previous analysis apply and
shows that the pressure
does not depend on x or y
Thus,as we move from point
to point in a horizontal plane
1 any plane parallel to the
xy plane 2 ,the pressure
does not change.
Therefore, pressure is the
same horizontally.
z = Az
z = 0
Ax
Ay
dW
P
z=0

P
z= Az
At same elevation, pressure is the same for the
same fluid at rest.
From equilibrium of forces in z-direction,

(Pressure force)
z=0
(Pressure force)
z=Az
(Weight) = 0
Summation of forces in all directions = 0
(P
z=0
) Ax Ay (P
z= Az
) Ax Ay Ax Ay Az = 0

Ax Ay Az

=
A
= A =
z
P P
0 z z z
z = Az
z = 0
Ax
Ay
dW
P
z=0

P
z= Az
Taking limit Az 0
dz
dP
=
Barometric equation
z = Az
z = 0
Ax
Ay
dW
P
z=0

P
z= Az
The equation is separable

Depending on the density of the fluid, we can
determine the pressure at any point of elevation.
=
dz
dP
} dP = } dz = } g dz
Pressure Depth relationship
1. Incompressible Fluid
Density is constant
( )
h g P
z z P P
z d
z d dP
1 2 1 2
2
1
2
1
2
1
A = A
=
=
=
}
} }
For free surface P
s
= P
atm

Normally take P
s
= 0 (P
gage
definition)
P = h = P
gage

P increase as one go downward.
P decrease as one go upward.

h P P
h P P
z d dP
s
s
h
0
P
P
s
+ =
=
=
} }
z = h
z = 0
P
s

P
Example 1
Find the pressure at the bottom of a tank
containing glycerin under pressure shown (
glycerin

= 12.34 N/m
3
)
50 kPa
2 m
Solution
Assumption: glycerin is an incompressible fluid

P
bottom
= P
s
+ h
= 50 + (12.34)(2)
= 74.68 kPa
Example 2
Determine the pressure at the bottom of an open
tank containing water at atmospheric pressure.
10 m
Solution
Assumption: water is an incompressible fluid

P
bottom
= P
s
+ gh
= 0 + (1000)(9.81)(10)
= 98.1 kPag
2. Compressible Fluid
change with pressure

At low pressure, of most gases are
approximated by ideal gas law:

P = pressure
M
w
= molar mass
R
u
= Universal gas constant (kJ/kmol K)
R = Gas constant (kJ/kg K)
T = absolute temperature (K)
T R
PM
RT
P

u
w
= =
Through integration:
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
=
=
} }
} }
} }
1 2
u
w
1 2
2
1
u
w
2
1
2
1
u
w
2
1
2
1
2
1
z z
T R
gM
exp P P
dz
T R
gM
dP
P
1
dz
T R
PM
g dP
dz g dP
Pressure Measurement
Objective:
Understand the principles of manometer
Learn how to calculate pressure using
manometer
In measuring pressure:
Pressure
increases as
one go
downward
In calculation,
has to plus
the pressure
Pressure
decreases as
one go upward
In calculation,
has to minus
the pressure
At the same elevation P is the same
AP = 0
A B
Mercury barometer
Device for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
A simple barometer consists of:
a tube more than 30 inch (760 mm) long
inserted in an open container of mercury
a closed and evacuated end pointing
upward
open end in the mercury pool
mercury extending from the container up
into the tube.
P
2

P
1

The space above the liquid
cannot be a true vacuum.
It contains mercury vapor at its
saturated vapor pressure
But this is extremely small at
room temperatures (e.g. 0.173
Pa at 20
o
C)
P
2

P
1

Mercury barometer
Equating P at both sides:
P
1
P
XY
= P
2
P
1

Hg
h = P
2
P
1
P
2
=
Hg
h

(Since pressure exerted by mercury vapor is
very small)
P
2

P
1

Y
X
z = 0
z = 0
P
1
=
Hg
h
A standard technique for measuring pressure
involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or
inclined tubes.

Piezometer tube
U-tube manometer
Inverted U-tube manometer
Inclined tube manometer
Piezometer tube
One arms containing the
fluid is attached to the
wall of the conduit.
X
Y
1
P
atm

h
Liquid A
U-tube manometer
The maximum value of P
1
-
P
2
is limited by the height of
the manometer.
Y
Fluid B
Fluid A
To measure larger AP
we can choose a
manometer with greater
density

To measure smaller AP
with accuracy
we can choose a
manometer fluid which
is having a density closer
to the fluid density.
Y
Fluid B
Fluid A
Inverted U-tube manometer
Used for measuring pressure
differences in liquids.
The space above the liquid in
the manometer is filled with
air which can be admitted or
expelled through the tap on
the top, in order to adjust the
level of the liquid in the
manometer.
Y
Air
Liquid A
Inclined tube manometer
1
2
a
b
c
e
L
h
2

h
1

d
Fluid A
Liquid B
h
3

Fluid C
Manometer
Advantages
Can measure small pressure
differences
Does not have to be
calibrated against any
standard; the pressure
difference can be calculated
from first principles.
Disadvantages
Not for measuring larger
pressure differences
Some liquids are unsuitable
for use. Surface tension can
also cause errors due to
capillary rise; this can be
avoided if the diameters of
the tubes are sufficiently
large - preferably not less
than 15 mm diameter
Slow response; unsuitable
for measuring fluctuating
pressures.
Example
A simple U-tube manometer is installed across an
orifice meter. The manometer is filled with
mercury (specific gravity 13.6), and the liquid
above the mercury is carbon tetrachloride
(specific gravity 1.6). The manometer reads 200
mm. What is the pressure difference over the
manometer?
Assuming
water
= 1000 kg/m
3

P
1
+ P
1X
P
XX
P
XY
PY
2
= P
2

P
1
+
A
(a+h) 0
B
h
A
a = P
2

P
1
+
A
h
B
h = P
2

P
1
P
2
= h (
B

A
)
= (200 10
-3
)(1000)(9.81)(13.6 1.6)
= 23544 Pa

Example
The fluid shown shaded in
the manometer is ethyl
iodide with a specific gravity
of 1.93. The heights are h
1

= 100 cm and h
2
= 20 cm.
a) What is the gage
pressure in the tank?
b) What is the absolute
pressure in the tank?

h
1

h
2

Tank full
of air
P
tank
+
air
gh
2

EI
g(h
1
+ h
2
)= P
atm

Since were taking gage pressure, P
atm
= 0

P
tank
=
air
gh
2
+
EI
g(h
1
+ h
2
)
= (1.2)(9.81)(0.2) + (1.93)(1000)(9.81)(1.00 + 0.200)
= 22717.6 Pa
= 22.72 kPag

Assuming the density of air is too small

P
tank
=
air
gh
2
+
EI
g(h
1
+ h
2
)
= (1.93)(1000)(9.81)(1.00 + 0.200)
= 22719.96 Pa
= 22.72 kPag
P
tank, abs
= 22.72 kPa + 101.3 kPa
= 124.02 kPa

Example
The mercury manometer below indicates a
differential reading of 0.30 m when the pressure in
pipe A is 30-mm Hg vacuum. Determine the
pressure in pipe B if the specific gravity of the oil
and mercury is 0.91 and 13.6, respectively.
Solution
P
A
+
water
gh
2
+
Hg
gh
3

oil
g(h
1
+ h
2
+ h
3
) +
oil
gh
3
=
P
B

Since P
A
=
Hg
gH

Hg
gH +
water
gh
2
+
Hg
gh
3

oil
g(h
1
+ h
2
+ h
3
)
+
oil
gh
1
= P
B

P
B
=
water
gh
2
+
Hg
g (h
3
H)
oil
g(h
2
+ h
2
)
= (1000)(9.81)(0.15) +
(13.6)(1000)(9.81)(0.3 30x10
-3
)
(0.91)(1000)(9.81)(0.15 + 0.30)
= 33.47 kPa
Example
A 6-in.-diameter piston is located within a cylinder which is
connected to a in-diameter inclined-tube manometer.The
fluid in the cylinder and the manometer is oil (specific weight
59 lb
f
/ft
3
). When a weight, W, is placed on the top of the
cylinder, the fluid level in the manometer tube rises from
point (1) to (2). How heavy is the weight? Assume that the
change in position of the piston is negligible.

Solution
Let the pressure due to piston alone (without weight) = P
P
Cross sectional area of the piston = A
P
Weight = W

Pressure due to the piston alone:
P
P
oil h
1
sin 30
O
= 0 . (1)

When the weight is put on top of the piston,
new pressure due to (weight + piston), P
P

P
P
= (Initial pressure due to piston) + (Pressure due to
weight)
= P
P
+ . (2)

P
A
W
On the other hand, new manometer equation
due to weight:

P
P

oil
(h
1
+ ) sin 30
O
= 0 .
(3)

(2) into (3)

P
P
+
oil
h
1
sin 30
O

oil
sin 30
O
= 0

12
6
P
A
W
|
.
|
\
|
12
6
From (1) =
oil
sin 30
O

( )
f
2
3
f
Ib 90 . 2
0.5 ft
12
6
ft
12
6
4 ft
Ib
59 W
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
t
P
A
W
|
.
|
\
|
12
6
Mechanical and Electronic Pressure
Measuring Device
Measure of high pressures
Bourdon Pressure Gage
When pressure acts on an
elastic structure, the
structure will deform.
This deformation relates to
the magnitude of pressure
As the pressure within tube
increases tube straighten
translated into pointer
motion on dial.
The pressure indicated
the difference between
that communicated by
the system to the
external (ambient) pressure
P
gage

Pressure transducer
Converts pressure to electrical output
Continuously monitor pressure changes with time
(for rapidly changing pressure)
Two type:
Diaphragm gage
Quartz-crystal piezometer

One side of the diaphragm is open to the external targeted pressure, P
Ext
, and the other side is connected to
a known pressure, P
Ref
,. The pressure difference, P
Ext
- P
Ref
, mechanically deflects the diaphragm
Pressure measurement
When the static pressure in a moving fluid is to be
determined, the measuring surface must be
parallel to the direction of flow so that no kinetic
energy is converted into pressure energy at the
surface.
If the fluid is flowing in a circular pipe the measuring
surface must be perpendicular to the radial
direction at any point.
Moving fluid
D
The pressure connection, which is known as a
piezometer tube, should flush to the wall of the
pipe so that the flow is not disturbed.
Moving fluid
D
The pressure is then measured near the walls
where the velocity is a minimum

The reading would be subject only to a small
error if the surface were not quite parallel to
the direction of flow.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy
Buoyancy arises from the fact that
fluid pressure increases with depth
the increased pressure is exerted in all
directions (Pascal's principle)
so that there is an unbalanced upward force on
the bottom of a submerged object

Buoyant force Principle
The buoyant force is caused
by the increase of pressure
in a fluid with depth.

Consider a body with a
thickness, b is submerged in
a liquid of density,
f
.

The hydrostatic forces:
F
1
= P
1
A acting downward
F
2
= P
2
A acting upward

a
b
P
1

P
2

Buoyant force = the difference
between the two forces i.e the
net upward force

F
B
= P
2
A P
1
A
=
f
g(a+b)A
f
gaA
=
f
gbA
=
f
gV
b

a
b
P
1

P
2

The buoyant force on the solid object is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced
(Archimedes' principle)
For fully submerged or immersed body in a fluid ,
Archimedes principle is restated as:

The buoyant force on a completely
submerged body is equal to the weight of
fluid displaced
F
B
= W =
f
gV
b
=
f
V
b

Buoyant force = Weight of fluid displaced

With respect to the fluid dispersed:
F
B
= W =
b
gV
f
=
b
V
f
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
body
f
body
body
body
f
body f B
g m
m
g
gV F
Example
A piece of irregularly shaped metal weighs 300.0
N in air. When the metal is completely submerged
in water, it weighs 232.5 N. find the volume of the
metal.
Solution
F
B
= W = 300 232.5 = 67.5 N

F
B
=
f
gV = (1000)(9.81) V = 67.5
V = 0.00688 m
3

For floating bodies, Archimedes principle is
restated as:

A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose
weight is exactly equal to its own

The weight of the entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force
(Weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to the volume of the
submerged portion of the floating body).
For floating bodies,
f
body avg,
total
sub body,
total body avg, sub body, f
B
V
V

gV gV
W F
=
=
=
Example
Determine the submerged depth of a cube of steel
0.30 m on each side floating in mercury.
Given SG
steel
= 7.8
SG
Hg
= 13.6

D
steel
mercury
Solution
F
B
= W

V
body,total
= 0.3 0.3 0.3 = 0.027 m
3

f
gV
body,sub
=
body
gV
body,total

(13.6)(1000)(9.81)(0.3 0.3 D) =
(7.8)(1000)(9.81)(0.027)
D = 0.172 m
Example
A solid block (SG = 0.9) floats such that 75% of its
volume is in water and 25% of its volume is in
liquid X, which is layered above the water.
Determine the density of liquid X.
Solution
F
B
= W

b
gV
f
=
f
gV
b

b
g(V
w
+ V
X
) =
w
gV
b,sub in w
+
X
gV
b,sub in X

b
V
b
=
w
V
b,sub in w
+
X
V
b,sub in X

0.9V
b
= (1.0)(0.75V
b
) + (SG
X
)(0.25V
b
)

SG
X
= 0.60
X
= 600 kg/m
3

Sink or Float?
Buoyancy: Submarine

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