Evolution of the universe The formation of stars Formation of planets Our solar system Evolution of the earth Evolution

ution of lithosphere, atmosphere & hydrosphere Interior of the earth Origin of life on earth

 One of the most earlier & popular argument on the origin of the earth , was given by German philosopher Immanuel Kant. It considers that planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated with a youthful sun which was slowly rotated. A wandering star approached the sun causing a cigar shaped extension of material . As the passing star moved away the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve & its slowly condensed into planets.

 This argument was given by a Russian named Otto Schmidt & German named Carl weizascar. they considered that the sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly the hydrogen & helium along with dust. The friction & collision of particles led to the formation of a disc shaped cloud & the planets were formed through the process of accretion.

Edwin hubble in 1920 provided evidences that the universe is expanding . According to him as the time passes the galaxies moves further apart giving support to his big bang theory.the big bang theory considered the following stages in the development of universe .these are as follows: In the beginning , all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a tiny ball with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature & infinite density. At the big bang the tiny ball exploded violently. Around 13.7 billion years before the present. There was particularly rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within frist three minutes from the big bang event, the first atom began to form. Within 300.000 years form the big bang , temperature dropped to 4,500k (Kelvin) & gave rise to atomic matter. The universe became transparent.

Growing nebula develops localized clumps of gas. These clumps continues to grows into even denser gaseous bodies giving rise to formation of stars. The formation of stars is believed to have take some 5-6 billion years ago. The distribution of matter & energy was not even in the early universe. These initial density differences gave rise to differences in gravitational forces & it caused the matter to get drawn together contributing to the formation of star. A galaxy contains a large number of stars. Galaxies spread over vast distances that are measured in thousands of light years.

Star life in stages

1. It will need a perfect star forming conditions- vast clouds of mainly hydrogen, helium & dust. 2. Collapse fragments of the cloud and shrink them to form prostars the first stage of a stars life. 3. Start nuclear reactions in the stars core so that it is able to shine steadily. 4. end the life of massive starwith an explosion, laeving behind a supernova remnant, neutron star, or black hole.

All stars spin, but some spin much faster then others. The fastest star of all is a neutron star identified as XTE J1739-285, which spins around at a head turning 1,122 times a second

The following are considered to be the stages in the development of planets:i. the stars are localized lumps of gas within a nebula. The gravitational force within the lumps leads to the formation of a core to the gas cloud & a huge rotating disc of gas & dust develops around the gas core. ii. In the next stage, the gas cloud starts getting condensed &the matter around the core develops into small-rounded objects. These small-rounded objects by the process of cohesion develop into what is called planetesimals. Larger bodies start forming by collision. And gravitational attraction causes the material to stick together. Planetesimals are a large number of smaller bodies. iii. In the final stage, these large number of small planetsimals accrete to form a fewer larger bodies in the form of planets This led to formation of planets.

1. Planetesimals small bodies formed from dust and gas eddies 2. Protoplanets 9 or 10 formed from planetesimals 3. Planets formed by combining protoplanets swept up by gravitational attraction.

Our solar system consists of eight planets. The nebula from which our solar system is supposed to have been formed, started its collapse & core formation some time 5-5.6 billion years ago. Our solar system consists of the sun(the star), 8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids & comets & huge quantity of dust grains & gases.

Asteroid:- These are smaller planets which are numerous in number & revolves round the sun between the orbit of mars & Jupiter. Comet:- A heavenly body revolving around the sun, consisting of a solid nucleus & a luminous gaseous state but smaller in comparison to planet. Meteor:- A fragment of solid matter which enters the upper atmosphere from outer space & becomes visible. they are very small & are so much disintegrated during their passage through the atmosphere that they fall on the surface as dust. However a larger body known as meteorites falls to the ground.

Origin of the Sun

15 billion years ago (bya). Big bang. All mass in universe compressed to single point 109 kg m-3 density, T=1012 K
Aggregates of ejected material collapsed gravitationally to form earliest stars. Temperatures in cores increased due to compressional heating When temperatures reached 10 million K, nuclear fusion of H into He and other elements began, releasing energy to power the stars. As early stars aged, they ultimately exploded, ejecting elements to the universe around

4.6 bya interstellar material aggregated to form cloudy mass, the solar nebula Sun formed from gravitational collapse of solar nebula Todays Sun (90% H, 9.9% He) Core (8-15 million K) Intermediate interior (5-8 million K) Hydrogen convection zone (HCZ) (6400 K - 5 million K) 10 million years for photon to travel from core to top of HCZ Photosphere (4000-6400 K, effective 5785 K) Chromosphere (4000 K - 1 million K. H energized and decays) Corona (1 - 2 million K. Consists of ionized gases) Solar wind --> Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis on Earth 300-1000 km/s, 200,000 K at Earth

Structure of the Sun

ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

4.6 bya, rock-forming elements, which were gases at high temperature in solar nebula, condensed into small solid grains as nebula cooled. Grains accreted to planetesimals, such as asteroids and comets. Asteroid: rocky body 1-1000 km in size that orbits sun. Comet: a small frozen mass that orbits sun Planetesimals accreted to form the Earth Meteorite bombardment over 500 million years aided Earths growth. Meteorite: Solid mineral or rock that reaches a planets surface without vaporizing.

Meteorite Impacts
Meteorites contained rock-forming elements (Mg, Si, Fe, Al, Ca, Na, Ni) that condensed in solar nebula and noncondensable elements (H, He, O, C, Ne, N, S, Ar, P). How did noncondensable elements enter meteorites?

They chemically reacted as gases to form high molecular-weight compounds that condensed.
Upon impact with Earth, some noncondensable elements (volatiles) evaporated (volatilized) on impact. Others have volatilized over time and have been outgassed through volcanos, fumaroles, steam wells, geysers.

Formation of the Earths Crust

4.5-4 bya, Earths core hotter than today. Only mechanism of energy escape was conduction (transfer of energy molecule to molecule). Because conduction is slow, internal energy could not dissipate, so entire Earth became molten and surface was magma ocean. At that point, energy could be transferred to the surface by convection, the mass movement of molecules. Convection allowed energy release and cooling at the surface, forming the Earths crust 4.3-3.8 bya. Dense elements (Fe, Ni) settled to core. Light ones (Si, Al, Na, Ca) rose to surface. Certain Mg, Fe silicates settled to mantle. Today, land crust granite (quartz, potassium feldspar). Ocean crust basalt (plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene). Outer core liquid Fe, Ni; inner core solid Fe, Ni

THE EARTHS INTERIOR

Depth below surface (km)
0 0 1000
Density (kg m )
-3

4000

8000 12000

Crust (0-50 km)

Upper mantle (50-700 km) Lower mantle (400-2900 km)

Depth below surface (km)

2000
Temperature (

3000 4000 5000 6000 0

Pressure (kbar)

o C)

Outer core (2900-5100 km) Inner core (5100-6371 km)

4000 8000 12000

Earths First Atmosphere

Consisted mostly of H, He During birth of the Sun, nuclear reactions are enhanced, increasing solar wind speeds and densities (T-Tauri stage of solar evolution).

Enhanced solar wind stripped off most H, He from the Earth. Additional H, He lost by escape from Earths gravitational field.

Initially due to outgassing by volcanos, fumaroles, steam wells, geysers. Hydroxyl molecules (OH) bound in crustal minerals, became detached and converted reduced gases to oxidized gases: H2(g) + OH --> --> H2O(g) CH4(g) + OH --> . --> CO2(g) NH3(g) + OH -->--> NO(g), NO2(g) N2(g) + OH -->--> NO(g), NO2(g) H2S(g) + OH -->--> SO2(g) Second atmosphere dominated initially by CO2(g), H2(g). Outgassed water vapor condensed to form the oceans.

TIMELINE OF EARTHS EVOLUTION

4.6 bya 3.5 bya Formation of the Earth Abiotic synthesis, 1953 Miller and Urey H2(g)+H2O(g)+CH4(g)+NH3(g)+H2O(aq)+ electricity or UV --> complex organics, amino acids --> first prokaryotes single strand of DNA but no nucleus conventional heterotrophs

THE AGE OF THE EARTH

4.6 billion years old = 4,600,000,000

GEOLOGICAL TIME

TOO OLD FOR YEARS OR MONTHS FOUR ERAS DEPENDING ON WHICH ORGANISMS LIVED PRECAMBRIAN PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC CENOZOIC

The earths 4.6 billion year history is divided into major units of time: Precambrian Time Paleozoic Era Mesozoic Era Cenozoic Era

4.6 billion years before present to 544 million years before present Longest era with a sparse fossil record Origin of earths crust, first atmosphere, and first seas Earliest fossils of cyanobacteria use photosynthesis to produce oxygen Ozone layer in the atmosphere is formed from oxygen

Paleozoic era

544 million years before present to 245 million years before present Marine communities flourish Early fishes develop Origin of amphibians, insects & reptiles Recurring ice ages/ Appalachians mountains form Spore-bearing plants dominate

Paleozoic era
c

286 - 248 million years before present: Supercontinent of Pangea forms 248 million years before present: MASS EXTINCTION-90 % of all known families lost!

245 million years before present - 65 million years before present

The age of the dinosaurs! Gymnosperms dominate land plant/ origin of angiosperms - flowering plants Origin of mammals & birds 145 million years before present asteroid impact? MASS EXTINCTION

Pangea begins to separate/ Rocky mountains form

MESOZOIC ERA 245 MILLION YEARS AGO!!

DINOSAURS

REPTILES
SMALL MAMMALS APPEAR BIRDS EVOLVE

PLATE TECTONICS
WHAT ENDED THE MESOZOIC ERA? MASS EXTINCTION!

? METERORITE

 ASTEROID IMPACT! Mass extinction of

ALL dinosaurs and many marine organisms End of the Mesozoic era

Cenozoic Era
65 million years before present -today Present era we live in Continued evolution and adaptations of flowering plants, insects, birds, mammals Mammals dominant Major crustal movements & mountain building (Alps & Himalayan mountains form)

And during the Cenozoic era

The most primitive hominid (human ancestor) evolves - approximately 4.4million years before present The first modern humans (homo sapiens) evolved approximately 100,000 years before present

Tom Tregenza Tom Tregenza Tom Tregenza Tom Tregenza

Tom Tregenza Tom Tregenza

 FOSSILS!

TRACE MOLD CAST AMBER IMPRINT PETRIFIED

 WHERE ARE FOSSILS USUALLY FOUND? WHO STUDIES THESE? HOW DO SCIENTISTS DETERMINE THE AGE OF SOMETHING BILLIONS OF YEARS OLD?
RELATIVE DATING RADIOMETRIC DATING