Prejudice

Chapter 11
Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination

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Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005
Rate your feelings about Irishmen:

Dislike 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Like List three things you think about Irishmen. Would you discourage your sister from marrying an Irishman?
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Chapter Outline
Planet Prejudice Goals of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination
Supporting and Protecting Ones Group
Gaining Social Approval Managing Self-Image Seeking Mental Efficiency
Reducing Prejudice, Stereotyping, & Discrimination

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Planet Prejudice
Have you ever been the object of negative feelings based simply on your membership in a group?
How about positive feelings?

Prejudice a generalized attitude toward members of a social group
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Planet Prejudice
What are the characteristics of:
A typical New Yorker? A typical Californian? A typical white male?
A typical sorority woman?
Stereotype a generalized belief about members of a group attached to individuals

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Planet Prejudice
If you were asked your opinions about Irishmen, Californians, or fraternity men, that would tap: Explicit prejudice positive or negative feelings of which you are aware But not implicit prejudice feelings of which you are not aware
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The Subtle Expression of Bigoted Views
Participants in one study were asked to judge White and Black applicants for university admission. Participants did not discriminate when the applicants test scores, grades, etc. were consistently strong or weak. The following slide shows how discrimination emerged when the applicants credentials were ambiguous.
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Highly recommend 4 3 2
White Applicant Black Applicant
Strength of recommendation for admission
1 Barely recommend
Non-prejudiced Participants Rating
Highly Prejudiced Participants Rating
Participants who had scored highly on scales of prejudice gave the black applicants much weaker recommendations than they gave the white applicants.
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G. Hodson, J.F. Dovidio, S.L. Gaertner (2002)

Planet Prejudice
Do you know anyone who has, because of their membership in a group, been:
Denied a job or promotion? Insulted or harassed? Ignored or poorly served in a restaurant or other business?
Denied an apartment or house?

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Planet Prejudice
Discrimination behaviors directed toward others because of their group membership

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Sexual Harassment as Gender Discrimination

As many as 80% of high school students report having been sexually harassed (Hostile Hallways, 2001).
The U.S. Army spent $250 million in one year to deal with problems related to sexual harassment (Faley et al., 1999).
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Behavior is seen as
More harassing when performed by someone in power (Pryor & Day, 1988)
Less harassing when performed by an attractive single individual (Sheets & Braver, 1993)
More harassing when directed at women than at men (e.g., U.S. M.S.P.B. 1988).
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Men are more likely to harass than are women. But whether men harass or not depends on the person, and, on the situation. In one study, male students were asked to train a young woman on a complex word-processing task.
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The men were introduced to the female trainee by a male graduate student who acted either:
Sexist put his arm around trainee, visually checked out her body
Professional respectful of trainee.
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The dependent variable in the research was the amount of sexuality expressed by the male student while instructing the female trainee.
Results depended on the participants chronic disposition to harass.
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esearch 5
Pryor, LaVite, & Stoller (1993)
Sexuality of Physical Contact
4 3 2 1
Disposition To Harass
Sexist Professional Role Models Treatment of Woman
Low High
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Institutionalized Discrimination
Institutionalized discrimination is built into the legal, political, social and economic institutions of a culture. It may be direct
Example: military rules requiring expulsion of openly homosexual soldiers.
Or more indirect and subtle

Example: hiring those with better educations excludes some minorities, favors others.
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Material Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

Physicians were only 60% as likely to suggest a top-rated diagnostic test for black heart patients as for whites. Even when blacks presented same symptoms, and gave identical information about themselves (Schulman et al., 1999).
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Material Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

One study found white men were offered better deals on cars:
$109 less than White women
$318 less than Black women
$935 less than Black men (Ayres & Siegelman, 1995 page 377).
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Psychological Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

A token minority in a group tends to:
become self-conscious perform less well on tasks that require concentration (Lord & Saenz, 1985; Saenz, 1994 page 377).
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Stereotype Threat
In one study, black and white students were asked to take a difficult exam taken from the verbal portion of the GRE (Graduate Record Exam). For some students, race was made salient by asking them to report it at the beginning of the test.
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esearch 10
Steele & Aronson (1995)
Number of Items Answered Correctly (adjusted by SAT score)
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6 4 2 0
Students Race Black White
Not Salient
Salient
Salience of Race
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Stereotype Threat
Stereotype threat the fear that one might confirm the negative stereotypes held by others about ones group
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Stereotype Threat
White men did worse on athletic tasks they thought tapped natural ability. But black men did worse if they thought it tapped athletic intelligence(Stone et al, 1999). White men did worse in math when they thought they were being compared to an Asian (Aronson et al, 1999).
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Stereotype Threat
Stereotype threat sometimes leads people to disidentify with those arenas where society expects them to fail.
Disidentify to decide that the arena is no longer relevant to their self esteem, and effort is withdrawn
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Goals of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Prejudice

Gaining Social Approval Managing Self-Image
Seeking Mental Efficiency

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Creating and Maintaining Ingroup Advantage

Minimal intergroup paradigm an experimental procedure in which short-term, arbitrary, artificial groups are created to explore foundations of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination
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Minimal Intergroup Paradigm

Example: students give preferential treatment to others who they believe share otherwise irrelevant traits:
A tendency to overestimate dots A preference for the artist Kandinsky A random assignment to a group with the same color t-shirt
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Ingroup bias tendency to benefit members of ones own groups over members of other groups
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Realistic group conflict theory proposal that intergroup conflict, and negative prejudices and stereotypes, emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources
Example: Members of different ethnic groups may compete for the same jobs, or the same farmland.
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Social Dominance Orientation Intergroup Competition The self-fulfilling spiral of intergroup competition
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Social Dominance Orientation
Social dominance orientation the extent to which a person wants his or her own group to dominate and be superior to other groups
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Circle the number corresponding to how you feel about each statement
1 = very negative 9 = very positive 1. Winning is more important than how the game is played. 2. It is alright to use any means necessary to get ahead. 3. Sometimes war is necessary to put other countries in their place.
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1 = very negative 9 = very positive

4. Inferior groups should stay in their place. 5. Some people are just better cut out than others for important positions in society. 6. Some people are better at running things and should be allowed to do so.
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People scoring high in social dominance orientation are prejudiced against weaker groups:
Blacks and homosexuals (in the U.S.) Natives and Asian immigrants (in Canada) Native Taiwanese (in Taiwan) Sephardic Jews and Palestinians (in Israel) page 382
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Intergroup Competition
When economic times were tough in the Southern U.S. during the 20th century, lynchings of Blacks increased (Hovland & Sears, 1940; Hepworth & West, 1988). Economic downturns in Northern U.S. increased violence against Blacks and immigrants (Olzak, 1992).
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Intergroup Competition
Middle class boys placed into competing areas in a summer camp:
Raided one anothers cabins Stole and burned one anothers flags
Came to view one another as stinkers smart-alecks and sneaks (Sherif et al., 1988).
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Self-fulfilling Spiral of Intergroup Competition

Competition and hostility breed more competition and hostility. When other groups are viewed as competitors, this becomes a selffulfilling prophecy.
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Limited Economic, Social, or Political Resources Group B acts in a competitive and hostile manner Group A sees Group B as a threat Group A acts in a competitive and hostile manner
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Group B sees Group A as a threat
Gaining Social Approval
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Think of the last time someone made a prejudiced remark you found offensive. Did you express your disapproval publicly? Did you let it pass? Did you force a smile?
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To win approval from members of our group, we may conform to their negative views of other groups.
A prejudiced social environment may also provide permission for people to express bigoted opinions they already hold.
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Gaining Social Approval Conformity Seeking Self-Monitoring Perceived Social Standing The Times
Intrinsic Religiosity & Prejudice

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Conformity Seeking
Racist students in S. Africa agree with statements such as:
A good group member should agree with the other members. To become a success these days, a person has to act in the way that others expect him to act (Pettigrew, 1958).
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Self-monitoring
High self-monitors people who use the beliefs about what others expect to guide their own actions
High self-monitors are more likely to express stereotypical views if they think it socially appropriate (Fiske & VonHendy,1992; Sheets & Bushardt, 1994)
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Perceived Social Standing

Newcomers, who are uncertain of being accepted in the ingroup, are especially likely to express hostility towards outgroups.
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Perceived Social Standing
In one study, fraternity and sorority pledges (new members) and full-fledged members expressed their opinions about other frats and sororities (Noel, Wann, & Branscombe, 1995). They either expressed their opinions:
Privately
Publicly (full-fledged members would hear them).

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3
Noel et al. (1995)
Those who were uncertain of their acceptance showed more bias in public than in private
Amount of Bias Against Outgroup
Opinions Expressed Publicly Privately
Members
Pledges
Status in Fraternity or Sorority

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The Times
Over the past forty years, white people report increasingly favorable views toward issues such as
Racial integration
Interracial marriage
Black presidential candidates.
Do findings like these reflect actual changes in peoples prejudices and stereotypes?
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The Times
Local norms affect peoples expression of prejudice.
Example: White students in North Carolina express more positive views of Blacks if their parents and friends approve of interracial relationships (Cox, Smith, & Insko, 1996). Page 386
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The Times
One researcher compared racial attitudes among prison inmates who had been randomly assigned to:
A racially tolerant prison ward, or
A racially prejudiced ward.
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Foley, 1976
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PERCENTAGE OF INMATES
Inmates assigned to the high prejudice ward were more likely to increase than to decrease their prejudice.
40
0
Decrease Increase
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No Change
Prejudice Expressed One Month Later
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Foley, 1976
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PERCENTAGE OF INMATES
But those assigned to the racially tolerant ward were more likely to decrease than to increase their prejudice.
40
0
Decrease Increase
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No Change
Prejudice Expressed One Month Later
Intrinsic Religiosity and Prejudice

Extrinsic Religiosity an orientation that sees religion as a means of gaining friendship, status, comfort, or other valuable ends
Extrinsically religious people express more prejudice than non-religious people.
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Intrinsic Religiosity an orientation in which people attempt to internalize religious teachings, seeing religion as an end in itself
Intrinsically oriented people present themselves as unprejudiced, but their behavior may be discriminating if they dont think others are watching.
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Quest religiosity An orientation that sees religion as a journey taken to understand complex spiritual and moral issues (vs. quick, simple answers)
Those who adopt this orientation are less prejudiced in word and in deed.
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Managing Self-Image
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Personal and Social Identities
Scapegoating process of blaming members of other groups for ones frustrations and failures
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Personal and Social Identities
Social identity beliefs and feelings we have toward the groups to which we see ourselves belonging
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Social Identity Theory

We desire to feel good about ourselves.
Part of our identity comes from the groups to which we belong. Just as individual social comparison can boost self-esteem, comparing our ingroups with outgroups that are less well off can raise our self-esteem (Rubin & Hewstone, 1998).
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Managing Self-Image Ingroup Identification Authoritarianism Failure Self-Esteem and Threat

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Ingroup Identification
People who are more strongly identified with their groups discriminate more against members of other groups.
Example: A student who is gung-ho for our school is more prejudiced against the traditional opponents.
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Authoritarians:
Readily submit to authorities
Mistreat those lower on the ladder

Are highly conventional
Believe in punishing the unconventional

View world in black-and-white terms
Are prejudiced towards socially rejected outgroups (such as homosexuals)

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Failure
People whose self-esteem is threatened by failure may attack members of outgroups.
Example: Students in one study derogated a Jewish student after they themselves failed (Fein & Spencer, 1997).
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Self-esteem and threat

Derogation of outgroups is generally more common among those with chronically low self-esteem (Crocker et al., 1987). But when people with high self-esteem are threatened with failure, they may be even more prejudiced (Aberson, Healy, & Romero, 2000).
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Amount of 2.0 Negative Bias against 1.0 Members of Other 0 Sororities
Low-Status Sorority High-Status Sorority
Low
High
Subjects Self-Esteem
In a study of sorority women at Northwestern University, those with low self-regard derogated members of other sororities.
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Amount of 2.0 Negative Bias against 1.0 Members of Other 0 Sororities
Low-Status Sorority High-Status Sorority
Low
High
Subjects Self-Esteem
The views of women who thought highly of themselves, however, depended on the prestige of their own affiliations.
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Stereotyping process of categorizing an individual as a member of a particular group and then inferring that he or she possesses the characteristics generally held by members of that group
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The Characteristics of Efficient Stereotypes

People may use stereotypes because, although some are badly inaccurate, many contain a kernel of truth.
Students rarely get the direction of actual sex differences wrong, though they sometimes overestimate them (Swim, 1994).
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The Reality
Females Males
The Stereotype
Females Males
Less
Aggressiveness
More
Less
Aggressiveness
More
To save us time and cognitive effort, we often sharpen the distinctions between groups and soften the differences within groups.
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Persistence of Stereotypes
Prejudice is a belief, and beliefs have a strong emotional aspect which make them resistant to logic, or to new information. (re-fencing)
Prejudice is tied to firmly established schemas for the target group.
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Perceived outgroup homogeneity phenomenon of overestimating the extent to which members within other groups are similar to each other.
Examples: All men are sports fans. They all look alike.
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Focus on Method: Exploring The Automatic Activation of Stereotypes

Hearing the word bread primes people to think about the word butter.
Similarly, even non-prejudiced people have automatic associations linked to racial stereotypes.
These can be activated without conscious awareness.

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Automatic Activation of Stereotypes

Students in one experiment made rapid decisions about words stereotypically associated with Blacks (e.g. musical). They recognized these words more rapidly if subliminally primed with the word BLACK. They recognized words such as educated more rapidly if subliminally primed with WHITE.
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Automatic Activation of Stereotypes

Automatic and Controlled information processing
Automatic stereotypes are activated by categorizations, schemas, heuristics, emotions, selfinterests, and our limited processing abilities, including memory. Controlled we apply thoughtful analysis of our own ideas before and after we act.
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Need For Structure Moods and Emotions

Cognitively Taxing Circumstances Overheard Ethnic Slurs
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Need For Structure
Students who had taken the Need For Structure scale read the following account:
Richard, a Junior at ASU, was taking Math 110 (pre-calc and geometry) against the advice of his roommate. After spring break, he started to get behind in his classes and it turned out to be an especially bad week for him.
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Need for Structure
Richard had a test coming up that he had to do well on in order to pass.

After studying for the test for almost two hours, he still did not understand the material and was extremely frustrated.
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Need for Structure
Part of his difficulty may have been problems he was having that were unrelated to school. Earlier that day, he had an argument with his girlfriend. He had changed his mind about some plans they had for the coming weekend. Trying to back out of the plans seemed to have caused the disagreement.
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Need for Structure
He usually went out every weekend. But he was worried about how much work he had to do and thought he should try to stay home and study to get caught up.
He was beginning to think he should never have enrolled in so many classes or should have dropped his math course.
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Need for Structure
Other students read a female version of the identical story:

Michelle, a junior at ASU, was taking math 110 (precalc and geometry) against the advice of her roommate. After spring break, she started to get behind in her classes and it turned out to be an especially bad week for her. etc.
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Need for Structure
Students high in need for structure made judgments more in line with sex stereotypes
Michelle was judged more emotional and irrational than Richard in the exact same situation (Neuberg, & Newsom, 1993 ).
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Moods and Emotions

Compared with neutral mood, stereotyping is enhanced by:
Positive mood Anger or anxiety Social Categories (status)
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Motivation:
Anger reduces motivation to form unbiased impressions Stereotype Other in Negative Way
Intense Anger
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Motivation Capacity :
Intense Anger Angers arousal makes it more difficult to engage in the thoughtful processes needed to see the other person in nonstereotypical ways Stereotype Other in Negative Way
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Motivation Capacity
Intense Anger
Construal and Interpretation:

Negative tinge of anger increases likelihood of seeing other as a member of unfavorable group, interpreting others behaviors unfavorably, etc.
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Stereotype Other in Negative Way
Cognitively Taxing Circumstances

1-704-8926 Imagine trying to keep that number in mind while also forming an impression of Hilda, an elderly woman. Students used more stereotypes in forming impressions if their minds were occupied with remembering an 8 digit number (Pendry & MacRae, 1994).
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Overheard Ethnic Slurs

The effects of overhearing an ethnic slur depends upon the person hearing it, as demonstrated in a study by Simon and Greenberg (1996).
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Three groups of subjects, differing in their level of prejudice, participated in a study of group processes.
White participants and a black confederate first worked individually on a problem, then passed solutions around to other students working in different cubicles.
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Unknown to the participants, the researchers replaced these solutions with others, attaching to one either a comment stating:
I cant believe they stuck us with this black person! I cant believe they stuck us with this n_-__-_-_! Or no comment at all (control condition).
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More Favorable
Simon & Greenberg, 1996

Anti-Black Subjects Ambivalent Subjects Pro-Black Subjects
44 41
Favorability of 38 Evaluations
35
32
Less Favorable No Comment Black Person N_-_-_-_-_
The subjects were then asked to rate the performance of their fellow group members.
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More Favorable

44 41
35
32
The ethnic slur had a negative effect on evaluations of the black team member, but only for participants who had strong negative prejudices to begin with.
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More Favorable

44 41
35
32
Participants who had strong pro-black attitudes were uninfluenced by the ethnic slur.
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More Favorable

44 41
35
32
And participants with ambivalent feelings toward blacks evaluated the black team member more positively after hearing the ethnic slur.
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Reducing Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

One hypothesis is negative stereotypes and prejudice are due to ignorance. From this perspective, simply exposing people to different groups should reduce prejudice. But merely putting different groups together does little to reduce hostility.
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Reducing Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

Another approach is based on the assumption that prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination serve important goals for people.
A goal-based approach tries to target interventions to the different goals.
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Goal-based approach
One route: Change features of the person.
Example: Reduce peoples anxiety before they interact with members of other groups.
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Goal-based approach
Another route: Change features of the situation.
Example: Create and advertise norms that disapprove of discrimination.
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Goal-based approach
Another route: Give people alternative ways to satisfy their goals.
Example: Students who got to affirm their self-worth by writing about things important to them later expressed less stereotypes about a Jewish job candidate (Fein & Spencer, 1997).
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Goal-based approach
Another route: Activate goals incompatible with prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination.
Example: Students forced to confront the inconsistency between their egalitarian beliefs and their prejudiced attitudes were later more likely to join NAACP (Rokeach, 1971).
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Intervention: Change Person
The Person
The Situation
Intervention: Change Situation
Intervention: Provide Alternative ways to Satisfy Goal
Goal (e.g. to gain economic resources for ones ingroup)
Intervention: Change Goal
Negative Prejudice, Stereotyping, or Discrimination

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Contact Helps When:

Outgroup members have traits and abilities challenging negative stereotypes Contact is supported by local authorities and norms Groups are of equal status, at least in contact setting Contact is at individual level Contact is rewarding Groups work toward common goals.
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Contact Helps When:

Importance of common goals was shown in the study of the Rattlers and Eagles (boys in summer camp in Oklahoma). When their only contact involved competitive games, interactions became increasingly negative, But then researchers forced the boys to cooperate towards common goals (such as starting a bus to take them all to a movie).
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100 80
Percentage of Rattler and Eagle Ratings That Were Unfavorable
Ratings of Own Group
Ratings of Other Group
60 40 20 0
After Competition
After Cooperation
After competing, the Rattlers impressions of the Eagles were highly unfavorable, as were the Eagles impressions of the Rattlers.
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100 80
Percentage of Rattler and Eagle Ratings That Were Unfavorable
Ratings of Own Group
Ratings of Other Group
60 40 20 0
After Competition
After Cooperation
The hostility between the groups eventually turned into friendship and acceptance after they were induced to begin cooperating with each other (Sherif et al.).
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Piecing Together the Puzzle

Jigsaw Classroom each student in a mixed race group is given a different, and essential, task to complete towards a class project This intervention takes advantage of each of the six principles of effective group contact.
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Chapter 11

Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Rate your feelings about Irishmen:

Reducing Prejudice, Stereotyping, & Discrimination

How about positive feelings?

A typical sorority woman?

Stereotype a generalized belief about members of a group attached to individuals

The Subtle Expression of Bigoted Views

White Applicant Black Applicant

Strength of recommendation for admission

Non-prejudiced Participants Rating

Highly Prejudiced Participants Rating

G. Hodson, J.F. Dovidio, S.L. Gaertner (2002)

Denied an apartment or house?

Discrimination behaviors directed toward others because of their group membership

Sexual Harassment as Gender Discrimination

Sexual Harassment as Gender Discrimination

Sexual Harassment as Gender Discrimination

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Sexual Harassment as Gender Discrimination

Professional respectful of trainee.

Sexual Harassment as Gender Discrimination

Pryor, LaVite, & Stoller (1993)

Sexuality of Physical Contact

Sexist Professional Role Models Treatment of Woman

Or more indirect and subtle

Material Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Material Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

Psychological Costs of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Steele & Aronson (1995)

Number of Items Answered Correctly (adjusted by SAT score)

Students Race Black White

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Goals of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Prejudice

Seeking Mental Efficiency

Supporting and Protecting Ones Group

Creating and Maintaining Ingroup Advantage

Minimal Intergroup Paradigm

Creating and Maintaining Ingroup Advantage

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Creating and Maintaining Ingroup Advantage

Supporting and Protecting Ones Group

Social Dominance Orientation

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

1 = very negative 9 = very positive

Self-fulfilling Spiral of Intergroup Competition

Group B sees Group A as a threat

Gaining Social Approval

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Gaining Social Approval

Gaining Social Approval

Intrinsic Religiosity & Prejudice

Perceived Social Standing

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Perceived Social Standing

Publicly (full-fledged members would hear them).

Copyright Allyn and Bacon 2005

Noel et al. (1995)

Amount of Bias Against Outgroup