FALL 2005

EVPP 505-001 BIO 508-002

Marine Conservation Issues

Pollution
Heavy metals & TBT (lecture 2) Pesticides (lecture 3) Oil (lecture 4) Nutrients (lecture 5) Pathogens (lecture 5) Debris (lecture 6) Noise (lecture 7)

Marine Conservation Issues

Poor fishery management (lectures 8 -9)
Collapse of Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua)

& Atlantic halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus)

- 28% of global fish stocks are significantly depleted or overexploited - Depleted fish stock show little sign of recovery even after decade of conservation measures

Marine Conservation Issues

Destruction of keystone habitats (lecture 10)
Nearly a quarter of all fish species associated with coral reefs Widespread coral reef damage Bleaching and disease events Siltation and smothering Possible impacts from global warming

Marine Conservation Issues

Depletion of keystone species (lectures 11-14)
- Only 1% of original whitetip reef shark population in Gulf of Mexico North Atlantic right whale reduced to few 100 animals Extinction of Stellar sea cow and Atlantic gray whale Destruction of turtle breeding beaches

Marine Conservation Issues

Global warming (lectures 15-16)
Melting of polar ice shelves Polar species habitat loss Increasing freshwater input - Possible impact on thermohaline circulation Sea level rises Acidification of oceans Shifts of species distributions

Marine Conservation Issues

Problems with marine conservation law and
policy (lecture 17; Guest lectures)
Imperfect laws Lack of enforcement Lack of integration Vested interests

Now in the age of marine deterioration?

Reidl (1980) suggested there were 4 eras of
marine research:
1) Seafarers 2) Oceanographic Expeditions (e.g. Challenger expedition) 3) Marine Stations (e.g. Scripps & Woods Hole) 4) Field Research

Stachowitsch (2003) suggested a fifth era:

5) Study of deteriorated marine ecosystems

Because almost all marine ecosystems have been disturbed/damaged

OTHER PROBLEMS
Although arguably a more urgent issue
marine conservation is more difficult due to a number of issues e.g. getting information on species decline
species Lottia alveus
even though the area it inhabited was studded with marine laboratories (Carlton et al., 1991)

For 60 years no-one noticed extinction of limpet

WHY? Marine conservation research much harder than in a terrestrial environment

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Oceans are much bigger
Area of Pacific Ocean could encompass all land continents alone Marine areas make up 99% of known biosphere BUT only a small area controlled by national laws
(i.e. 200 nautical miles or less)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Oceans less transparent than air
Little light penetrates farther than 100m below surface In areas of high plankton/turbidity etc penetration even less Remote sensing from satellites/airplanes difficult

Most marine areas/ecosystems not directly

observable

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Oceans less transparent than air

Also photosynthesis constrained to photic zone (sunlit waters) But nearshore and surface waters most effected by human activities Impacts on photosysnthesis and primary production effect whole marine ecosystem

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Oceans are 3 dimensional

Water layers & lots of stratification (result of salinity & temperature differences)

Much more complex environment than

flat terrestrial environment

LESS THAN 2% OF OCEAN ACCESSIBLE TO SCIENTISTS VIA SCUBA DIVING Submarines are few and expensive

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Dispersal stages smaller

Many fish and invertebrate larvae <1mm Terrestrial animals mostly disperse when juveniles

i.e. much larger and easier to track Marine dispersal patterns difficult to predict Makes site-based conservation very difficult

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Longer dispersal distances

Larval stages may drift for days or months

Can disperse 1000s of km Recruitment of animals to specific site much more random Number of fish offspring recruitment rate Single small protected areas not enough to protect a species

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Pelagic environment fluid

Although seabed (benthic) environment is very stable, pelagic environment is very changeable Movement of water bodies can shift habitat dramatically Fish stocks can shift location 10s of km in a single day Prediction of animal distribution difficult Small site protection not possible

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Primary production & consumers are patchy
Instead of sessile or long-lived (trees) producers mobile & short-lived (phytoplankton) Growth or disappearance of producers can be very rapid Can rapidly exploit patchy nutrient resources or beneficial environmental changes Which means

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Consumers have to travel long distances productivity oases in oceanic desert Will encounter more human obstructions/activities in

their travels (e.g. draft nets) Will travel through waters of many different countries and legal/exploitation regimes

Patchy but high concentrations of associated species make patches profitable to fishing competition between marine species & humans Less stable: marine systems more susceptible to boom or bust than terrestrial environment

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Seabed structure components very small
e.g. coral, worm tubes, seagrass, sponges provide important habitat structure as opposed to larger structures rainforest trees etc. in terrestrial environment

Small size and lack of accessibility of these structures mean that managers overlook their importance e.g. seabed structure (e.g deep sea corals important for survival of young cod -provides hiding places from predators etc; Lindholm et al., 1999)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Great increase in disturbance with decreasing distance from shore
Near shore - more nutrients, temperature/salinity fluctuations, disturbance from waves and human activities But species further from the shore, and sea surface, less adapted to recover from disturbances If offshore/deep habitats or species damaged take longer to recover and impact great Especially a problem with deep water trawling and deep sea drilling etc.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Oceans chemically downhill from land
Chemicals, nutrients and waste flow from land to sea Very, very rare for contaminants to flow the other way, i.e. sea to land Activities on land can have major impacts on the oceans So conservation must take into account land based activities as well are marine activities

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Nutrients are not so quickly recycled

On the land dead matter is decomposed and nutrients are returned to the ecosystem quickly In the oceans, dead and decaying organisms sink Once nutrients have sunk beneath the photic (sunlit) zone they are lost to producers

until nutrients are re-circulated (e.g. upwhellings)

These nutrients can be lost to producers for 100s of years Anthropogenic nutrients etc entering the marine

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Less opportunities for ex situ conservation
(captive breeding etc) Larval stages of marine species very small, difficult to feed and maintain Seawater chemistry and physics difficult to maintain artificially Many species adapted/require wide-ranging, and mobile habitat (esp. pelagic species) Deep sea species are a particular problem
(100sx atmospheric pressure)

Mortality rates frequently high Appropriate ex situ habitat extremely costly

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Less opportunities for ex situ conservation
(captive breeding etc) Larval stages of marine species very small, difficult to feed and maintain Seawater chemistry difficult to maintain artificially Many species adapted/require wide-ranging, and mobile habitat (esp. pelagic species) Deep sea species are a particular problem
(100sx atmospheric pressure)

Mortality rates frequently high Appropriate ex situ habitat extremely costly In situ required for conservation

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Marine species exploited are wild
Terrestrial exploited species are primarily domestic/livestock
Breeding controlled Predators controlled Feeding controlled Waste disposed of Medical treatment provided Climate/environment controlled Productivity of terrestrial stocks greater/controlled Meager human input to sustain marine stocks

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Technology for hunting/killing marine species less selective/evolving faster
Wildlife removal on land very selective equipment and carefully controlled/regulated/monitored Fisheries now use satellite positioning, temperature sensors, 3D sonar Use large capacity fishing gear and vessels (e.g. 60 mile longlines, driftnets kms long) Laws and regulation have not kept pace with speed of technology development More efficient at catching more of fewer and fewer fish But non selective methods (e.g. mass of by-catch is several times shrimp catch)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Lack of ownership/personal responsibility

Land owners typically do not pollute and destroy land they own and farm 64% of ocean area outside of the control of any country (High Seas) Tragedy of the commons if you dont exploit it someone else will Countries with good land laws frequently turn a blind eye to/ignore sea laws Or easily persuaded to overlook over-exploitation E.g. North Sea scientists advise a zero cod quota politicians overruled this

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Marine species and ecosystems have less cultural and legal protection
Large predators on land protected (e.g. bears, wolves) but not in oceans (sharks, marlin) Structure-providing organisms protected (trees/forests) but not sponges, kelp beds, deep water corals etc (coral reefs an exception in some areas) Coastal national parks may prohibit hunting land species, but promote hunting of marine species Extraction methods far more destructive than would be acceptable on land (~ hunting deer with hand grenades)

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

less cultural and legal protection

Protection of land wildlife often under conservation/environment departments but marine wildlife under fisheries departments Less legal protection An extraction/exploitation ethos rather than conservation Less experience/expertise in conservation biology Bodies dealing with marine conservation different from land conservation no control / input over land activities impacting the marine environment

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Much less spent on marine conservation!

US National Park Service US$ 14.3 million spent on National Marine Sanctuaries x119 difference Disparity despite 71% of global being marine Despite 99% of the biosphere being marine

In 1999 US$1,700 million spent on

Published Research on Marine Conservation vs Terrestrial

Marine papers <11% of leading conservation
biology journal papers

(n=5974)

<3% in Conservation Ecology to 40% in

60.9% terrestrial 14.5% general 13.6% freshwater 10.1% marine 0.8% anadromous (e.g. estuarine etc)

Aquatic Conservation Marine papers in Conservation Biology cited only 7.1 x on average (vs. 18.2 x for terrestrial papers) so marine research has less impact
Kochin & Levin. 2003, 2004

Pub. Res. on Marine Conservation

Less than 5% of papers in marine ecology
journals deal with conservation issues
2.2%: pollution 2.0%: over-fishing 0.9%: invasive species 0.4%: marine protected areas
(n=4700) (n=6618)

In fisheries journals <7% of papers dealt with

conservation
3.3%: over-fishing 1.9%: pollution 1.2%: invasive species 0.2%: marine protected areas

National Science Foundation funding

>80 % terrestrial projects 9.7% marine projects

(Conservation Biology & Restoration Ecology programs)

Kochin & Levin. 2003, 2004

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Terrestrial and marine ecosystems threatened by similar problems

Over-exploitation Physical deterioration of

ecosystems/habitats Pollution Invasive species Climate change

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Driving forces behind problems the same

Over-population Excessive consumption Insufficient understanding Undervaluing nature Inadequate institutions

Also

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION Maintaining the status quo insufficient
(too much damage done already)

Small populations at particular risk Top carnivores/keystone species especially

important Even stable populations can be depleted by technological advances and inability to detect declines In situ ultimately better then ex situ

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Ecosystem conservation better than individual

species conservation Emphasizing conservation of charismatic species can be an umbrella for other species Protected areas are good but not sufficient

Countries with the fewest resources have the

most biodiversity in need of conservation Strong special interests oppose conservation New technology can help as well as hinder

good management outside protected areas also required

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL & MARINE CONSERVATION

Laws not enough for conservation

- need public support too Vigilance is needed a brief lapse and species or habitats can disappear for ever Government environmental protection/ conservation departments always weaker than those exploiting/damaging Managing conservation = managing humans Resources are scarce Time is short

REFERENCES
Norse, E. & Crowder, L.B. 2005. Why marine conservation biology? In: Marine Conservation Biology (Ed. E. Norse & L.B. Crowder), pp. 1-18. Island Press, Washington
Carlton, J.T., Vermeij, G.J., Lindberg, D.R., Carlton, D.A. and Dudley, E. 1991. The first historical extinction of a marine invertebrate in an ocean basin: the demise of the eelgrass limpet Lottia alveus. Biological Bulletin 180(1): 72-80. Kochin, B.F. & Levin, P.S. 2003. Lack of concern deepens the oceans problems. Nature 424: 723. Kochin, B.F. & Levin, P.S. 2004. Publication of marine conservation papers: is conservation biology too dry? Conservation Biology 18: 1160-1162. Lindholm, J.B., Auster, P., Kaufman, L.S. 1999. Habitat-mediated survivorship of juvenile (0-year) Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. Marine Ecology Progress Series 180: 247-255. Reidl, R. 1980. Marine ecology a century of changes. Marine Ecology 1: 3-46. Stachowitsch, M. 2003. Research on intact marine ecosystems: a lost era. Marine Pollution Bulletin 46: 801-805.