BASIC ECOLOGY AND PRINCIPLE

CONCEPTS
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THE EARTH IN SPACE

The earth is the only known planet that has life on it because it has water and air making it ideal for living things

NINE PLANETS THAT TRAVEL THROUGH SPACE

AROUND THE SUN Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM

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http://athene.as.arizona.edu/~lclose/teaching/a202/lect4.html

THE EARTH IN SPACE

The earth is a part of the solar system, a group of nine planets that travel through space around the sun. The earth is the only known planet that has life on it because it has water and air making it ideal for living things.

INSIDE THE EARTH

CRUST
It varies thickness from 248 miles (40 km) beneath the parts of the continents to only 3.1 miles (5 km) under parts of the ocean floor. It is made up of lighter rocks than the other layers. The temperature of the rocks increases by by 86oF (30oC) for every km under the surface. Two kind: ocean crust (between the seas) and the continental crust (beneath the land)

INSIDE THE EARTH

MANTLE

It is about 1,800 miles (2,900 km) thick. At the top is made up of solid rock. Deeper down it is so hot that the rock melts and becomes molten. It is composed of mainly iron and magnesium.

INSIDE THE EARTH

CORE

OUTER CORE it is about 12,000 miles (2000 km). It is a mixture of a very hot liquid iron and nickel. INNER CORE it is thought to be solid ball of iron and nickel that measures about 1,500 miles (2,400 km)

ROCKS

IGNEOUS ROCKS formed when hot molten material called magma bubbles up from beneath the crust and hardens.

Example: pumice, granite, obsidian and quartz

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS made from pieces of older rocks which collect in layers usually beneath the sea. Often sedimentary rocks form from layers of dead animals and plants.

Example: sandstone, limestone, shale and dolomite

METAMORPHIC ROCKS rocks that have been changed and hardened by heat and pressure.

Example: slate, marble, graphite and serpentinite

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FOSSIL FUELS
These are our main sources of heat and power that comes from beneath the Earths surface. They are legacies of producers that lived hundreds of millions of years ago These include:

Oil made from bodies of tiny sea creatures that lived million of years ago. The bodies gathered on the seabed and were gradually squeezed down under rocks that formed above them. Eventually, they turned into oil. Coal layers of dead plants were squeezed down until they turned into carbon Natural Gas it is made from decomposed animals and plants usually found in same place as oil.

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BIOSPHERE
The layer around the planet where all living things exist. It is designated as the SKIN OF LIFE It contains all various ecosystems and all the water, minerals, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients that living things need in order to survive.

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LAYERS OF THE BIOSPHERE

LITHOSPHERE includes the soil and sediments where the organism lives. HYDROSPHERE includes the liquid or frozen water on or near the surface of the lithosphere. ATMOSPHERE is a region of gases, particulate matter and water vapor.

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ECOSYSTEM
A biological environment and its physical environment. It is a community of organism functioning together and interacting with the physical environment through (1) flow of energy, and (2) cycling of materials. The interaction of the community and non-living environment. Life support system. A community and its physical and chemical environment.

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COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
BIOTIC COMPONENT living organism ABIOTIC COMPONENT physical environment or the non-living component.

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NON- LIVING STRUCTURES (ABIOTIC)

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WHAT SUPPORTS LIFE ON EARTH?

Life exists in only a thin layer just above and below the earth's surface, the biosphere. The atmosphere is composed of mostly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) Nutrient and Sedimentary cycles

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NUTRIENT AND SEDIMENTARY CYCLES

NUTRIENT CYCLE

Biogeochemical Cycles a. Hydrologic Cycle b. Carbon Cycle c. Nitrogen Cycle

Sulfur and Phosphorus Cycle

SEDIMENTARY CYCLE

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NUTRIENT
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CYCLES

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE

A summary of the different chemical repositories where a particular elements resides, coupled with the pathways that convert and transport the element from one repository or form to another.

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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE

The

movement of water in the earths atmosphere, on the surface, and below the surface a process powered by suns energy.

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HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

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CARBON CYCLE

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http://www.nps.gov/olym/hand/process/ccycle.htm

CARBON CYCLE

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THE NITROGEN CYCLE

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NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen Fixation: converts gaseous nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3). Certain bacterial species, both aerobic and anaerobic, carry out this conversion. Nitrification: only certain bacteria, the nitrifying bacteria, can use NH3 as an energy source. The reaction occurs in two steps:

Nitrosomonas bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) to nitrite (NO2-) Nitrobacter bacteria convert nitrite (NO2-) to nitrate (NO3-)

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NITROGEN CYCLE
Denitrification: bacteria that can respire anaerobically will convert nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Note that nitrate is now serving as an electron acceptor. Some anaerobic respirers can also use nitrite (NO2-), converting it further into nitrous oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (N2O), and ultimately nitrogen gas (N2). Assimilation: ammonia can be directly assimilated into organic compounds inside cells, producing amino groups (-NH2).

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NITROGEN CYCLE
Excretion: during excretion, fermentation, and other catabolic processes, excess amino groups (NH2) are released, ultimately producing ammonia (NH3). Assimilatory Nitrate Reduction: since nitrate (NO3-) is far more common than ammonia, many organisms can only acquire nitrogen in the form of nitrate. They must reduce nitrate to form the amino groups needed for metabolism. This process, which superficially resembles nitrate reduction by anaerobic respiration, is entirely different.

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THE NITROGEN CYCLE DIAGRAM

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SEDIMENTARY CYCLES
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IMPORTANCE OF PHOSPHORUS
Phosphorus is the key to energy in living organisms, for it is phosphorus that moves energy from ATP to another molecule, driving an enzymatic reaction, or cellular transport. Phosphorus is also the glue that holds DNA together, binding deoxyribose sugars together, forming the backbone of the DNA molecule. Phosphorus does the same job in RNA.

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PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Plants absorb phosphorous from water and soil into their tissues, tying them to organic molecules. Once taken up by plants, phosphorus is available for animals when they consume the plants.

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PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

When plants and animals die, bacteria decomposes their bodies, releasing some of the phosphorus back into the soil. Once in the soil, phosphorous can be moved 100s to 1,000s of miles from were they were released by riding through streams and rivers.

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SULFUR CYCLE

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THE SULFUR CYLE

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IMPORTANCE OF BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES

Facilitate the self-regulating process of an ecosystem. They provide fresh air and transform dead organic matter in the form that can be taken back the metabolic system of plants. They help retain necessary nutrients in usable form for the living components of the ecosystem.

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HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE Agricultural clearing Excessive deforestation Use of fossil fuel Increasing industrial activities Waste management practices Transportation And many more.....

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ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Carbon containing compounds Compounds derived from organisms Chemicals of life

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CHEMICALS OF LIFE
Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids

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CARBOHYDRATES
Carbos = Sugars: C, H, O in 1:2:1 ratio (roughly CH2O) Types

Monosaccharides building block of carbohydrates (simplest sugar) Disaccharides (Polysaccharides) Oligosaccharides (Polysaccharides)

They are eaten by many animals and contribute to the production of fats and proteins All energy utilized by living matter comes from carbohydrates.

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SOME EXAMPLES OF CARBOHYDRATES AND

THEIR RESPECTIVE USES a) Glucose - key metabolic fuel (energy source) of all cells. b) Animal Starch (Glycogen)- long term energy storage for animal cells (stores the glucose molecules in a form not easily used!). c) Plant Starch (Amylose) - long term energy storage for plant cells (stores the glucose molecules in a form that is not easily used!) d) Cellulose - Structural polysaccharide of cell walls. e) Chitin - Structural polysaccharide of exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans.
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PROTEINS

They are organic molecules consisting of many amino acids bonded together.

AMINO ACIDS building blocks of proteins. PEPTIDE BOND bond between two or more amino acids. DENATURATION - protein shape altered with changes in pH, temperature. Change in shape alters activity of enzyme. ENZYMES biological catalysts (substances that speed up chemical reactions).

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FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS AND NAMED

EXAMPLES 1) Enzyme catalysis: Enzymes help reactions occur more easily. Example- Amylase (Converts starch to simple sugar.) 2) Defense: Antibodies - Globular proteins that "recognize" foreign microbes. 3) Transport- Hemoglobin (red blood cell protein). 4) Structure / Support- Collagen, which forms the matrix of skin, ligaments, tendons and bones. 5) Motion- Actin, a muscle protein responsible for muscle contraction. 6) Regulation- Hormones which serve as intercellular messengers. Example - Insulin (blood sugar regulation).
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LIPIDS
Organic molecules insoluble in water due to numerous non-polar C-H bonds. Fats, oils, & waxes Types of Lipids

Triglycerides (fats) 1. Saturated fats solid at room temperature 2. Unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature Phospholipids Steroids Terpenes Prostaglandins
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FATTY ACIDS building block of lipids

FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
1. Energy storage- Fats store glucose energy for long time periods. 2. Chemical messengers- Steroid hormones (testosterone & estrogen) 3. Lipid bilayers of cell membranes

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NUCLEIC ACIDS
Hereditary materials Types:

Deoxyribonucleic acid: DNA, master molecule, stores hereditary information Ribonucleic acid: RNA, template copy

NUCLEOTIDES - monomers of nucleic acids.

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CLIMATE REGIME
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CLIMATE AND WEATHER

Is there any difference?

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CLIMATE VS WEATHER
Weather

Climate

Daily conditions, including temperature and rainfall Can change very rapidly from day to day, and from year to year. Changes involve shifts in temperatures, precipitation, winds, and clouds.

Average weather over a long period Influenced by slow changes in the ocean, the land, the orbit of the Earth about the sun, and the energy output of the sun Fundamentally controlled by the balance of energy of the Earth and its atmosphere
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CLIMATE

is the average pattern of weather in a place over a long period of time

weather

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CLIMATE IS AN OUTCOME OF MANY

INTERACTING FACTORS

Variations of incoming solar radiation

The earths daily rotation and its annual path around the sun

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CLIMATE IS AN OUTCOME OF MANY

INTERACTING FACTORS

Distribution of continents and oceans

Elevation of land mass

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WHAT IS THE CLIMATE SYSTEM?

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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?

The atmosphere is a thin layer of mixed gases which makes up the air we breathe.

The

oxygen and ozone (O3) at the atmosphere absorb nearly the ultraviolet wavelengths which is dangerous to most living things. This also helps the earth from becoming too hot or too cold.

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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?

Weather systems, develop here in the atmosphere brought about by the heat from the sun, the rotation of the Earth, and variations in the Earths surface. Air currents the warm equatorial air rises and spread northward and southward. In the arctic regions, the aircools, sinks downward, then flows back towards the equator. The prevailing air currents help dictate the distribution of the different types of ecosystem.

http://www.inkart.com/images/lineart/weather_2.gif

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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?

The oceans cover about 70% of the Earths surface. Their large mass and thermal properties enable them to store vast quantities of heat. The atmosphere and the ocean exchange energy and matter. Gyres circular ocean movements

http://mynasadata.larc.nasa.gov/images/OceanCurrents.gif

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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?

Land covers 27% of the Earths surface and land topography influences weather patterns.

http://www.harpercollege.edu/mhealy/geogres/maps/nagif/naelevpc.gif

Ice is the worlds largest supply of freshwater and covers the remaining 3% of the Earths surface. Because of its insulating properties, ice plays an important role in regulating climate.

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HOW DOES CLIMATE SYSTEM WORK?

The biosphere is the place where living things live and large amounts of carbon dioxide are exchanged between the biosphere and the atmosphere.

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THE LIVING COMPONENTS (BIOTIC) OF AN ECOSYSTEM

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PRODUCERS (AUTOTROPHS)
Able to produce or build its own complex organic molecule from simple organic substance in the environment. PHOTOSYNTHETIC AUTHOTROPHS organisms able to build all the organic molecules it requires using carbon dioxide as the carbon source and sunlight as the energy source. CHEMOSYNTHETIC AUTOTROPHS organisms able to build all the organic molecules it requires carbon dioxide as the carbon source and certain inorganic substances as the energy source.

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CONSUMERS (HETEROTROPHS)

Organisms that is not self-feeding and that ingest other living organs in whole or in part to obtain organic nutrients. HERBIVORES plant-eating animal. CARNIVORES animal that eats other animal. OMNIVORES organism able to obtain energy from more than one source rather than being limited to one trophic level. DECOMPOSERS obtain organic nutrients by breaking down the main or products of other organisms. DETRIVORE feeds on partial decomposition of plants and plants and animals tissues.

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THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS OF

AN ECOSYSTEM
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FOOD CHAIN
The series of the stages that energy goes through in the form of food. The general sequence of who eats whom.

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FOOD CHAIN
TYPES OF FOOD CHAINS GRAZING FOOD CHAIN one which goes from green plants to grazing herbivores and finally to carnivore.

DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN one which goes from dead organic matter to microorganisms and then to detritus feeding organisms.

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FOOD WEB

Network of many interlinked food chains, encompassing primary consumers, decomposers and detrivores.

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TROPHIC LEVEL

Describes its distance, in steps, from the prime source, the sun.

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TROPHIC LEVELS WITHIN AN ECOSYSTEM

Abiotic Environment

Decomposers Producers

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Consumers

CONCEPT OF ENERGY LOSS AT EACH SUCCESSIVE TROPHIC LEVEL

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BIOCONCENTRATION

It is the accumulation or increase in concentration of a substance as it proceeds up the food chain

Many high molecular weight organics are sparsely soluble in water but highly soluble in lipids (fatty tissue) This unequal solubility can lead to bioconcentration if the substances are not effectively metabolized by the organism.

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BIOENERGETICS
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ENERGY
A capacity for interaction between particles A capacity to make things happen A capacity to do work

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ENERGY FLOW
Energy flows into ecosystem from outside sources as sun. Energy flows through the ecosystem based on the consumption of living tissues of photosynthesis growing food webs and the use of organic wastes products (detrital food webs) and remains as a result of metabolic activities of each organism.

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ENERGY SOURCES

Fuel Resources
Petroleum Natural Gas Coal Peat Water Product Wood

Non-Fuel Resources
Hydropower Geothermal Tidal Wind Solar Energy

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

OF VARIOUS ENERGY SOURCES
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PETROLEUM

Essentially a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with small amount of atmospheric substances; recovered from onshore and from tar offshore fields, tar sand and oil shale; also found in deep sea.

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PETROLEUM
ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGE

Abundant and accessible Deposits are widespread in sedimentary areas. Highly versatile high-grade fuel Petroleum and its products are used for transportation, heating lighting, cooling, lubricating, medical products, animal, protein, fertilizers, etc.

Non-renewable, requires considerable capital investment. Cause pollution through cost production sand and oil shale is higher than from conventional sources.

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NATURAL GAS
A combustible gaseous mixture that in gas fields (non-associated gas) contains largely methane and wet state with petroleum (associated gas) contains other hydrocarbons. Found in natural gas field; in coal mines in geopressure zones; obtained as by-product of coke making.

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NATURAL GAS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Relatively cheap and abundant, clean and virtually sulfur-free. Versatile; use as few material for petrochemicals.

Non-renewable except when produced from organic waste or algae. Expensive to transport when liquified. Risky to handle because of vapor clouds and danger of fire.

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COAL

A combustible mineral substance containing expensive and essentially carbon with small amount of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and other constituents; classified as anthracite, bituminous and lignite.

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COAL
ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Very abundant. Deposits are widespread in sedimentary areas. High-coal contains 70-80% of the energy per unit weight of oil. Some kind of low in sulfur. Lignite can be used to produce a high-grade smokeless fuel through the qriquetting process.

Non-renewable. Deep mining can be dangerous and hazardous to health. Surface stripping damages the land and creates problem of soil erosion and unproductive land unless remedial work is undertaken, which may be expensive.
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PEAT
Compressed and carbonized elements such as uranium and thorium results in the release of enormous quantities of energy. Plutonium is produced in nuclear reactors. Uranium is found in rocks and seawater; also as by product of minerals, such as gold, phosphate, oil shale.

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PEAT
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Moderate widespread in many parts of the world. Can be used locally for domestic purposes and for electricity generation. Low cost if no transportation involved

Can be more costly than coal to produce on a commercial basis. Non-renewable

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WATER PRODUCT

Agricultural and municipal waste provides steam when burned; animal waste can be dried and used directly as a fuel and converted to methane and fermentation and to oil or gas by methods of decomposition.

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WATER PRODUCT
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Easily obtained and renewable. Can be processed to produce cattle feed. Solves problems of wastes disposal of related environmental pollution.

Organic municipal waste produces lowgrade fuel. Large scale of agricultural organic waste could be costly. Technical problems are still to be solved. Can only be a complement of energy.

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WOOD
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Provides heat for domestic purposes. Methanol can be produced from wood, renewable. Less pollution than other fuels.

Provides less heat per unit weight than other fuels, such as coal and oil. Inefficient conversion causes smoke pollution. Other industrial uses, such as construction and paper production may yield a higher return than its use for energy. Forests are far from industrial centers.

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HYDROPOWER

Water power used to supply energy

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HYDROPOWER
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Clean method of electricity production. Can be cheap of cost.

Many involved high initial construction cost. Growing shortage of natural sites. Damming the water may cause changes in the environment, backwater sedimentation are rapid silting.
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GEOTHERMAL
(ENERGY SUPPLIED FROM THE HEAT OF THE EARTHS INTERIOR) ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Abundant Can generate electricity and provides heat for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. Can be used to desalinate water. Can generate electricity economically in relatively small units. Not subject to seasonal variation.

Found principally in areas of tectonic activity. Environmental pollution possible; release of sulfur components; highly mineralized hot water containing materials may have to be reinjected into the field; thermal pollution may be created when used to generate electricity; hot water and stream must be used from geopressure zones and hot rocks not yet developed.

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TIDAL
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Generated from the flow of tides. Non polluting and renewable.

Possible only in areas where different tide level is high enough to generate electricity. Output is complicated and costly.

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WIND

Power from force of wind.

WINDMILL

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WIND
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Traditionally used in many rural areas. Non polluting Small wind generators can support energy is isolated regions.

Variation in energy output according to duration and force of wind. Storage of electricity when wind velocity changes is expensive. For large scale production suitable sites with adequate wind power are hard to find. Can only be complementary to other sources of energy.
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SOLAR ENERGY

Sunlight affects rains, winds and ocean currents; provides energy for plant and animal life through photosynthesis.

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POSSIBLE FUTURE RESOURCES

Solar Energy Nuclear Fusion Sea-Thermal Waves Ocean Currents Algae

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BIODIVERSITY
The

variety among living organisms and the ecological communities they inhabit, gives ecosystems stability.
www.mass.gov

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EVOLUTION

The natural process of change in response to the physical changes of an aging planet.

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ECOSYSTEM DEVELOPMENT OR ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

Ecological Succession is an orderly process of community development that involves changes in species structure and community process with time. Primary Production means the amount of material trapped by autotrophs in the process of photosynthesis and productivity. It is the amount of material stored by autotrophs per unit time. Cybernetics the science of controls.

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