The recent history of second language learning research and human learning

Part I L1 Acquisition

Introduction to Language Acquisition

Interests in L1 competence for many centuries beginning of analyzing child language systematically and its psychological process in the second half of the 20th century analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition especially the differences in the case of adult SL learning in terms of cognitive and affective contrasts three theoretical positions of first language acquisition

Theories of L1 acquisition
(1) Behavioristic Approaches: focus on the publicly observable responses
(a) assumptions:
(i) Children come into the world with a tabula rasa, a clean slate bearing no preconceived notions about the world or about language as to be shaped by their environment and slowing conditioned through reinforcement (ii) Effective language behavior is the production of correct responses to stimuli. (iii) If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or conditioned.

Theories of L1 acquisition
(b) Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner (1957): a behavioristic model of linguistic behavior extended from operant conditioning *Assumption: (i) an operant (an utterance) is emitted without necessarily observable stimuli; (ii) that operant is learned by reinforcement such as from another person. (iii)verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences(rewards or punishment or no reinforcement)

*Criticism: Behaviorism cannot explain creativity of child language (by Noam Chomsky)

Theories of L1 acquisition
(2) The Nativist Approaches
(a) innateness hypotheses (i) Assertion: language acquisition is innately determined.
Language is a species-specific behavior and certain modes of perception, categorizing abilities are biologically determined. (by Eric Lenneberg, 1967) Language acquisition device (LAD) in a little black box sound discrimination, organization of linguistic data, only one possibility of a certain kind of linguistic system within ones head, constant evaluation in developing linguistic system to construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input(by Chomsky, 1965)

(ii) strengths: able to account for the generativity of child langauge

(b)

Universal Grammar (Cook 1993, Mitchell & Myles 1998) (i) all human beings are genetically equipped with abilities that enable them to acquire language (ii) to discover what it is that all children bring to the language acquisition process from question formation, negation, word order, subject deletion and so on.

(c) the development of generative grammar: children construct hypothetical grammar, formal representations of deep structures which start as pivot grammars (two-word utterances for two word classes) and mature.

(d) the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model by Spolsky (Connectionism): (i) A learners linguistic performance may be the consequence of many levels of simultaneous neural interconnections rather than a serial process of one rule being applied, then another and so on. (ii) refutation of the generative rule-governed model: generative rules in a linguistic sense are not connected serially, with one connection between each pair of neurons in the brain (e) Contributions of Nativism: (i) able to explore the unseen, observable, underlying, abstract linguistic structures being developed in the child (ii) systematic description of the childs linguistic repertoire as either rule-governed or operating out of parallel distributed processing capacities (iii) the construction of a number of potential properties of UG

Theories of L1 acquisition
(3) Functional Approaches (language use and cognitive/affective domains by constructivism)
(a) Two emphases:
(i) Seeing language as one manifestation of the cognitive and affective ability to deal with the world, with others and with the self. (ii) Nativism as being unable to deal with the deeper levels of meaning of language constructed from social interaction but with the forms of language.

(b) cognition and language development:

(i) Lois Bloom (1971): children learn underlying structures and not superficial word order as shown in pivot grammar, depending on the social context (ii) Jean Piaget (1969): what children know (cognition development) will determine what they learn about the code for both speaking and understanding messages (language development) (iii) Dan Slobin (1971): in all languages, semantic learning depends on cognitive development and that sequences of development are determined more by semantic complexity, than by structural complexity-> schema of cognition on the functional level and schema of grammar on the formal level

(c) social interaction and language development

(i) Holzman (1984): a reciprocal model -> a reciprocal system operates between the language developing infant-child and the competenc adult language user in a socializing-teaching-nurturing role (ii) Berko Gleason (1988) & Lock (1991): the interaction between language acquisition and learning of social systems

(iii) Budwig (1995) & Kuczaj (1984): the function of language in discourse (relations between sentences) in terms of conversational cues

* Schools of thought in First Language Acquisition

Time Frame Schools of thought Typical themes

Early 1900s, 1940s &1950s

Behaviorism

Tabula rasa Stimuli: linguistic responses Conditioning reinforcement Innate predispositions (LAD & UG) systematic, rule-governed acquisition Creative construction Pivot Grammar Parallel distributed processing (PDP) Constructivist Social interaction Cognition and language Function of language Discourse

1960s & 1970s

Nativism

1980s, 1990s & early 2000

functionalism

* Schools of thought in SLA

Time Frame Early 1900s, 1940s &1950s Schools of thought Structuralism & Behaviorism Typical themes Description Observable performance Scientific method Empiricism Surface structure Conditioning, reinforcement Generative linguistics Acquisition, innateness Interlanguage systematicity Universal grammar Competence Deep structure

1960s & 1970s

Rationalism & Cognitive Psychology

1980s, 1990s & early 2000

Constructivism

Interactive discourse Sociocultural variables Cooperative group learning Interlanguage variability Interactionist hypotheses

Part I L1 Acquisition
2. Issues in L1 acquisition
(1) -Competence: ones underlying knowledge of the system of a language - Performance: actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening, reading) of linguistic events

Criticism:
(i) competence defined by Chomsky consists of the abilities of an idealized hearer-speaker, devoid of any performance variables (ii) dualism are unnecessary and the only option for linguists is to study language in use (by Firth and Halliday) (iii) heterogeneous competence by Tarone: that all of a childs skps and hesitations and self-corrections are potentially connected to

(2)Comprehension & production

(i) comprehension and production can be aspects of both competence and performance. (ii) Production competence = comprehension competence? (iii) Superiority of production over comprehension?

(3) Nature or nurture?-> whats predetermined and whats learned?

(i) Nativism: universal innateness in all human beings (the LAD or UG) (ii) Environmental factors also matter

(4)Universals
(a) language is universally acquired in the same manner (b) the deep structure of language at its deepest level may be common to all languages. (c) Universal linguistic categories e.g. word order, morphological marking tone, agreement (d) Principles & parameters of UG: (i) a childs initial state is supposed to consist of a set of universal principles (e.g. structure dependency) which specify some limited possibilities of variation, so-called parameters which need to be fixed in one of a few possible ways. -> a childs task of language learning is manageable

because of certain naturally occurring constraints

(ii) language cannot vary in endless ways since parameters determine ways in which language can vary. E.g head parameter (English- head first; Japanese head last)

(5) Systematicity: the systematicity of the acquisition process in

inferring the phonological, structural, lexical, and semantic system of language

Variability: variability in the process of learning; to

determine what is variable maybe systematic

(6) Language and thought: language interacts simultaneously with thoughts and feelings
(a) Jerome Bruner (1966): words shape concepts (b) Vygotsky (1962, 1978): social interaction, through language, is a prerequisite to cognitive development (zone of proximal development- the distance between a childs actual cognitive capacity and the level of potential development) (c) Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language affects thought-> each language imposes on its speaker a particular world view

(7) Imitation: (a) surface imitation as a strategy in early language learning as supported by behaviorism (b) deep imitation: true value in meaningful semantic level- the deep structure of language e.g. children often repeat the correct underlying deep structure with a change in the surface rendition

(8) Practice: frequency of stimuli (unimportant to Nativists) +

importance of words -> key to language acquisition

(9) Input: adult and peer input to children seen not as important
as the influence of LAD to explain how children acquire language successfully by nativists but in fact ungrammatical input is largely ignored and finally transfer correct forms to speech

(10) Discourse (by social constructivists)

(a) interaction rather than exposure is required for successful language acquisition (b) Sinclair and Culthard (1975): to examine conversations in terms of initiations and responses; literal meaning is not necessarily the same as intended meaning

3. mistakes in drawing direct analogies between first and second

language acquisition(Ausubel) (1) rote learning practice lacks meaningfulness necessary for language learning (2) adults learning a foreign language could benefit from learning grammar deductively (3) L1 is not just an interfering factor (4) The written form of the language could be beneficial (5) Students could be overwhelmed by language spoken at its natural speed

Part II Second Language Acquisition

1. Age and acquisition

(1) the

Critical Period Hypothesis ( a biological timetable for language acquisition) -- Assumption: a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire (2) Neurological considerations (a) hemispheric lateralization (i) as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned or lateralized to one side of hemisphere. (ii)The left brain: intellectual, logical and analytic; the right brain: emotional and social (iii) research question: when lateralization takes place and how it affects language acquisitio --- Lenneberg (1967): lateralization begins around age 2 and is completed around puberty --- Thomas Scovel (1969): Learning a L2 as well as L1 should be prior to puberty plasiticity especially for nativelike (authentic) pronunciation (iv) Unresolved time of lateralization: five or puberty

(b) biological timetables: support for the acquisition of an authentic accent on a neurologically basis, not for that of higher order processes or communicative fluency (i) a socio-biological critical period by Thomas Scovel (1988)- the development of a socially bonding accent at puberty, enabling species ---- to form an identify with their own community as they anticipate roles of parenting and leadership ---- to attract mates of their own kind to maintain their own species (ii) different aspects of a L2 are learned optimally at different ages by Walsh and Diller (1981)-lower-order processes e.g. pronunciation depending on early maturing and less adaptive macroneural circuits

(c) right-hemispheric participation (i) Obler (1981): the active role of the right brain in SLA or strategies of acquisition e.g. guessing at meanings, use of formulaic utterances (ii) Genessee (1982): greater involvement of the right hemisphere in bilinguals particularly for adult learners
(d) anthropological evidence: against Scovels age-related view (i) some adult learners success in language learning (ii) motivation, affective variables, social factors and the quality of input also important in explaining advantage of the child * the significance of accent: --- for the critical period: from phonology, much muscular control is required to be fluent in authentic L2 so children easily achieve it --- against the critical period: fluency over accuracy in pronunciation; how people have accomplished beyond phonological factors

(3) Cognitive considerations

(a) intellectual development (Piaget) (i) three stages: sensorimotor stage (>2); preoperational stage (2-7); operational stage (7- 16)(concrete operational stage 7-11; formal operational stage 11-16) (ii) for the critical period: at puberty, one is capable of abstraction by Piaget; benefits of deductive thinking for adult learners by Ausubel (b) affective, rather than cognitive factors, that facilitate adult learners second language acquisition (i) adults are aware of their learning and can use strategies to help themselves to be successful (ii) dominance of the left hemisphere after puberty contributes to a tendency to overanalyze and to be too intellectually centered on SLA

(c) equilibration: cognition develops as a process of moving from states of doubt and uncertainty to stages of resolution and certainty; from disequilibrium (which provides motivation for language learning: language interacts with cognition to achieve equilibrium) to equilibrium (d) rote and meaningful learning: learning must be related to existing knowledge and experience; foreign language classroom should not become the locus of excessive rote activity

(4) Affective considerations: empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition,

anxiety, attitudes (a) egocentricity: esp for children (b) language ego by Alexander Guiora (1972): (i) the identify a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks (ii) childrens ego is dynamic and flexible so learning a new language is not a threat to the ego; adults is protective and defensive (iii) successful learning- ones language ego must be strong enough to overcome inhibitions

(c) identity: affective inhibitions of children and adults; a second identity (d) attitudes: advantage of young children whose attitudes towards races, cultures, classes of people havent been developed (e) peer pressure: childrens strong constraints upon them to conform; adults tolerate linguistic differences more than children

(5) Linguistic considerations

(a) Bilingualism (i) two kinds of bilinguals --- coordinate bilinguals: two meaning systems learned from different language contexts --- compound bilinguals: one meaning system from which both language operate (ii) code-switching of most bilinguals: the act of inserting words, phrases, or even longer stretches of one language into the other, especially when communicating with another bilingual (iii) a considerable benefit of early childhood bilingualism: bilingual children are more facile at concept formation and have a greater mental flexibility

(b) interference between L1 and L2: usually not in young children (c) interference in adults: not necessarily since adults manifest errors not unlike some of the errors children make as the result of creative perception of the second language

(d) order of acquisition: (i) focus on morphemes by Dulay and Burt --- methodological arguments, lack of generalizability (ii) the myth of the younger, the better by Scovel: adults can benefit from literacy, vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge, and even syntax plane

2. Human learning
(1) Classical Behaviorism by Pavlov: respondent conditioning that is concerned with respondent behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus (2) Operant Conditioning by Skinner: operant behavior is one in which one operates on the environment; a concern about the consequences that follow the response (3) Meaningful Learning Theory by Ausubel: learning takes place in a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts (i) any learning situation can be meaningful if: learners have a meaningful learning set and the learning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners (ii) a meaningfully learned, subsumed item has greater potential for retention (iii) forgetting is a second stage of subsumption for --- an economical reason through cognitive pruning where a single inclusive concept than a large number of more specific items is retained --- language attribution: the strength and conditions of initial learning; motivation; use of a L2

(iv) strengths of subsumption theory: the disadvantage of rote memory in language learning; systematic forgetting; shift of goal to communicative competence

the

(4) Humanistic Psychology by Rogers: constructivism by highlighting the social and interactive nature of learning in the affective domain (i) the whole person as a physical, cognitive, and emotional being (ii) learning how to learn (iii) teachers as facilitators of learning through the establishment of interpersonal relationships with learners and genuine trust and empathy (iv) a climate of nondefensive learning (v) empowerment of students, not banking

Behavioristic
1.classical: (Pavlov)

Cognitive

Constructivist

respondent conditioning elicited response S->R 1.operant: (Skinner) governed by consequences emitted response R-> S (reward) No punishment Programmed instruction

(Ausubel) meaningful=powerf ul rote=weak subsumption of new items under a more inclusive conceptual system association and retention systematic forgetting cognitive pruning

(Rogers) fully functioning person learn how to learn community of learners empowerment

3.Transfer, interference, and overgeneralization (6) A more correct explication: The interaction of previously learned material with a present learning event (7) Transfer: positive transfer and negative transfer (interference, usually L1-> L2, & overgeneralization L1-> L1 or L2 -> L2) (8) All generalizing involves transfer and all transfer involves generalizing.

4.Inductive and deductive reasoning (1) Inductive reasoning: one stores a number of specific instances and induces a general rule or conclusion that governs the specific instances (e.g. classroom learning) (2) Deductive reasoning: a movement from a generalization to specific instances (3) Gestalt learning: perception of the whole before the parts

5. Schema Theory (By Bartlett, 1932 ) (1) To explain how the language that we have about the world is organized into interrelated patterns based on our previous knowledge and experience. These schemata also allow us to predict what may happen in future context. (2) Efficient readers can relate texts to their background knowledge of the world. (3) The process of interpretation is guided by the principle that every input is mapped against one existing schema and that all aspects of that schema must be compatible with the input information. This principle results in two modes of information processing, called bottom-up and top-town. (4) Both processing should be occurring at all levels simultaneously. (5)bottom-up processing: (i) It is evoked by the incoming data, the features of the data enter the system through the best fitting, bottom-level schemata. Schemata are hierarchically organized, from most general at the top to most specific at the bottom. When these bottom-level schemata converge into higher level, more general schemata, these too become activated. Bottom-up processing is thus data-driven.

(ii) The data that are needed to instantiate or fill out make schemata become available through bottom-up processing.
(iii) This processing ensures that listeners or readers will be sensitive to information that is novel or that doesnt fit their ongoing hypotheses about the content or structure of the text. (6) top-down processing (i) It occurs as the system makes general predictions based on higher level, general schemata and then searches the input for information to fit into these partially satisfies, higher order schemata. It is conceptually driven. (ii) It facilitates the datas assimilation if they are anticipated by or consistent with the listeners or readers conceptual expectations. (iii) It helps learners resolve ambiguities or select between alternative possible interpretations of the incoming data.

6. Styles and strategies (1)Learning styles

(a)field independence/field dependence styles: Personal traits Definition field independence the ability to perceive a particular, relevant item or factor in a field of distracting items a more analytical, more independent, competitive, and self-confident person Classroom learning analysis, attention to details, mastering of drills in classroom learning, better in deductive lessons Natural, face to face communication, the kind of communication rare in the average language classroom Age difference Adults: Use more monitoring or learning strategies for language acquisition(cons cious attention to forms) Children: use strategies of acquisition (subconscious attention to functions)

field dependence The tendency to be dependent on the total field so that the parts embedded within the field are not easily perceived.

More socialized, empathic, and perceptive of the feelings and thoughts of others,

* significance 1. FI and FD are not in complementary distribution within an individual 2. Both styles are important 3. to assume a persons general inclinations in a given context with an appropriate style

(b) left- and right-brain functioning

Left-brain dominance Remember names Right-brain dominance Remember faces

Deductive-> analytical
Logical-> logical problem solving Linear processing FI->intellectual, planned and structured Prefers talking and writing-> less body language

Inductive->holistic
Visual, auditory, emotional-> intuitive problem solving Elusive, uncertain information FD-> intuitive, fluid, spontaneous Prefers drawing and manipulating objects -> more body language

Make objective judgments ->multiple-choice tests

Make subjective judgments-> open-ended questions

(c) ambiguity tolerance: to predict academic success (i) definition: how much one tolerates ideas and propositions opposing to ones belief system (ii) with ambiguity tolerance-> free to entertain innovative and creative possibilities and not be disturbed by uncertainty (iii) too much ambiguity tolerance-> prevent meaningful subsumption of ideas due to wishy-washy tendency (iv) no ambiguity tolerance->rigid, dogmatic mind

(d) reflectivity and impulsivity

reflectivity Systematic styles A slower, more calculated decision maker Accurate reader Inductive reasoning impulsivity Intuitive styles A quick, hunch-based decision maker Fast reader Willing to guess

More patience for a reflective learner, fewer judgments on mistakes made by an impulsive learner.

(e) visual and auditory styles

Visual Prefer reading, studying charts, drawing, and other graphic information e.g. Korean students

auditory Prefer listening to lectures and audiotapes

* Successful learners utilize both visual and auditory input (2) Strategies (refer to Oxfords strategy classification system, 1990) (a) Learning strategies: to take in messages (input) from others (i) good language learners by Rubin and Stern (1975) in terms of personal characteristics, styles, and strategies

(ii) strategies by Michael OMalley (1983) Cognitive Metacognitive Socioaffective

An executive function involving planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of ones production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity

In specific learning tasks for more direct manipulation of the learning material itself e.g. repetition, translation, note taking

Social-mediating activity and interacting with others e.g. cooperation, question for clarification

(iii) indirect learning strategies: metacognitive, affective and social; direct learning strategies- memory, cognitive and compensation. * usefulness of adopting learning strategies in language learning -> strategies-based instruction (SBI) (about how to learn) and autonomous self-help training 1. be aware of ones style, preferences and the strategies 2. practice successful strategies 3. practice compensatory strategies 4. strategy instruction in the textbook

(b) Communication strategies: how one expresses meanings; deliver messages to others especially when communication is deterred from reaching its goal (i) avoidance strategies: message abandonment, topic avoidance, lexical, syntactic, and phonological avoidance
(ii) compensatory strategies (part of strategic competence)circumlocution , approximation, use of all-purpose words, word coinage, prefabricated patterns, nonlinguistic signals, literal translation, foreignizing, code-switching appeal for help, stalling/time-gaining strategies

7. Personality factors

(1) the affective domain

(a) self-esteem: a personal judgment of worthiness thats expressed in the attitudes that individuals hold towards themselves; related to ones willingness to communicate in a foreign languag (i) general or global self-esteem - a median level of overall self-appraisal -stable in a mature adult so resistant to change over time and across situations (ii) situational or specific self-esteem - ones self-appraisals in particular life situations e.g. home, work, athletic ability, and personality traits (iii) task self-esteem - particular tasks within specific situation e.g. one subject matter area in the educational domain

(b) Inhibition: sets of defenses to protect the ego (i) language ego by Guiora (1972) and Ehrman (1996): occurs when identity conflict as language learners take on a new identity with their newly acquired competence (ii) higher self-esteem + adaptive language ego-> lower inhibition (c) risk-taking: ability to make intelligent guesses; impulsivity (i) Being willing to take risks doesnt necessarily contributes to success since not necessarily accurate guesses (ii) Willing and accurate guesses, high motivation and self-esteem are also factors of learner success (iii) Lack of willingness to take risks-> fossilization

(d) Anxiety (i) trait anxiety (permanent predisposition to be anxious)/ state anxiety (situationally anxious)-> language anxiety (ii) debilitative(harmful anxiety)/ facilitative anxiety (helpful anxiety e.g. concern over a task to be accomplished-> competitiveness) (iii) three components of language anxiety: 1. communication apprehension 2. fear of negative social evaluation 3. test anxiety

(e) Empathy: the process of putting oneself into some elses shoes usually through language (i) transactional variables to SLA: imitation, modeling, identification, empathy, extroversion, aggression, styles of communication

(ii) empathy is more detachment from others; sympathy is an agreement between individuals.
(iii) two aspects to the development and exercising of empathy 1. an awareness and knowledge of ones feelings 2. identification with another person (to know oneself first)

(f) Extroversion: the extent to which a person has a deepseated need to receive ego enhancement, self-esteem, and a sense of wholeness from others (i) introversion: the extent to which a person derives a sense of wholeness and fulfillment apart from a reflection of this self from other people (ii) introverted passive; extrovertedbright and empathetic (iii) extroversion as a factor in developing oral communicative competence

(2) motivation:
(a) three views of motivation:

Behavioristic

Cognitive

Constructivist

Anticipation of reward Desire to receive positive reinforcement External, individual forces in control

Driven by basic human needs (exploration, manipulation,etc) Degree of effort expended Internal, individual forces in control

Social context Community Social status Security of group Internal, interactive forces in control

(b) instrumental/integrative orientations (Robert Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991): converted from instrumental and integrative motivations (i) Instrumental orientation (usually from extrinsic motivation): acquiring a language as a means for attaining instrumental goals; academic or careerrelated (ii) Integrative orientations (from intrinsic motivation) (weaker than assimilative orientation by Graham, 1984): learners wish to integrate themselves into the culture of the second language group; socially or culturally oriented (iii) Implications: no single means of learning a L2; the two orientations are not necessarily mutually exclusive

(c) intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

intrinsic motivation to bring out feelings of competence and selfdetermination strongly favored for longterm retention or selfrealization maybe turn out to be integrative

extrinsic motivation anticipation of a reward from outside for short-term retention maybe instrumental

8. Sociocultural factors (1) stereotypes/ overgeneralizations: (a) Reality is perceived through ones cultural pattern? - too oversimplified (b) Our cultural milieu shapes our world view (how do stereotypes form)? (c) Stereotype-thinking towards a culture and people in it can be accurate in depicting the typical member of a culture but not for particular individuals so cultural differences need to be understood.

(2) Attitudes: implied by stereotyping toward the culture or language; developed in early childhood and be the result of parents and peers attitudes
(a) group-specific attitude-> an integrative orientation (b) positive attitudes-> enhance proficiency (c) negative attitudes-> positive by direct exposure to reality

(3) second culture acquisition (a) culture learning: a process of perceiving, interpreting, feeling, and being in the world; to create shared meaning between cultural representatives (b) acculturation: the process learners adapt to the target language culture and acquire the L2 usually during the recovery stage the tourist stage the empty stage (culture shock) the recovery stage (culture stress) the acceptance stage (adaptation)) (c) culture shock: 1. phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis 2. a profound cross-cultural learning experience which takes place when one examines the degree to which ones influenced by his own culture and understands the culturally derived values, attitudes, and outlooks of other people

(4) social distance (a) definition: the cognitive and affective proximity of two cultures that come into contact within an individual which is difficult to measure (b) parameters of social distance by John Schumann (1976) (i) dominance: TL/L2 politically, culturally, technically, economically dominant, non-dominant or subordinate (ii) integration: L2 is assimilation, acculturation or preservation (iii) cohesiveness: cohesive, size of L2 (iv) congruence: congruent value and belief systems in TL/L2 (v) permanence: L2s intended length of residence in the TL area

(c) a good language learning situation: (i) the L2 group is non-dominant in relation to the TL group; (ii) both groups desire assimilation for the L2 group; (iii) low enclosure is the goal of both groups (iv) the two cultures are congruent (v) the L2 group is small and non-cohesive (vi) both groups have positive attitudes towards each other (vii) the L2 group intends to remain in the target language area for a long time (d) measurement of perceived social distance (W. Acton, 1979) by quantifying the different attitudes towards various concepts (e) implication: mastery of fluency in L2 occurs at the beginning of the recovery stage of acculturation

(f) the optimal distance model by Brown (1980) for adults especially: a culturally based critical-period hypothesis
1. an adult who fails to master a L2 might have failed to synchronize linguistic and cultural development 2. In Stage 3 to Stage 4, those who have achieved nonlinguistic means of coping in a foreign culture-> fossilization (g) culture in the classroom: four conceptual categories to study the cultural norms

(i) individualism (loosely integrated)/collectivism (tightly integrated) (ii) power distance- the extent to which the less power persons accept inequality in power and consider it normal (iii) uncertainty avoidance- strong uncertainty avoidance-> active, aggressive, emotional, compulsive, security-seeking and intolerant (iv) masculinity- masculine cultures stress material success and assertiveness

(5) language policy and politics

(a) world Englishes (b) ESL/ EFL (c) Linguistic imperialism and language rights (d) Language policy and the English only debate

(6) Language, thought, and culture: the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

(a) euphemisms/verbal labels can shape the way one stores events for later recall (b) the way a sentence is structured will affect nuances of meaning e.g. Did you see the broken headlight?- There is one. Did you see a broken headlight? (c) conversational discourse signals, a factor of culture- casual/formal (d) lexical items intersection of culture and cognition e.g. color categorization (e) question: Does language reflect a cultural world view or does language actually shape the world view?

(f) Alternative labels of the Spair-Whorf Hypothesis The Whorfian Hypothesis, linguistic relativity or linguistic determinism (g) Criticism: -Its possible to talk about anything in any language but some concepts are easy to express -Through both languages and cultures, some universals are found - A L2 learner can make positive use of prior experiences to facilitate the process of learning

10. Cross-linguistic influence and learner language

(1) the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (by applied linguists) (a) influenced by behaviorism/structuralism in the 1950s (b) claim: the principal barrier to SLA is the interference of the L1 system with the L2 system so the differences of L1 and L2 should be overcome (c) Linguistics across cultures by Robert Lado (1957): the patterns that will cause difficulty in learning can be predicted and described by comparing systematically the target language and the L1; Similar in L1 and L2-> simple; different -> difficult (d) Hierarchy of difficulty in terms of phonology, syntax, etc for prediction by Stockwell, Bowen & Martin 1965

(i) Shortcomings of CAH: (i) CAH is inadequate to predict the interference problems of a learner (ii) Great difference doesnt necessarily cause great difficulty-> intralingual/interlingual errors (iii) It is difficult to determine exactly which category a particular contrast fit into (2) Markedness and UG: to better explain learning difficulty than CAH (a) Markedness theory by Fred Eckman (1977) (i) Marked items in a language will be more difficult to acquire than unmarked (ii) Degrees of markedness will correspond to degrees of difficulty (iii) Marked structures are acquired later than unmarked ones. (b) UG= rules shared by all languages (i) to discover innate linguistic principles that govern what is possible in human languages (ii) to understand and describe contrasts of L1 and L2 and difficulties of learners

(3) Learner Language (Interlanguage by Selinker, 1972)

(l) IL: a system that has a structurally intermediate status between L1 and L2; It is neither L1 nor L2 (m) Approximative system byNemser (1971) (n) Idiosyncratic dialect by Corder (1971) (o) Study learner language from production data which are observable and reflective of a learners underlying competence (p) To analyze Interlanguage, errors of learners have to be studied because correct production yields little information about competence

(4) Error Analysis: (performance/ interlanguage analysis) --- errors provide the evidence of how language is learned, and
what procedures or strategies the learner is employing in the discovery of language --- examination of errors from all possible sources, not just from L1 interference (like CA) e.g. intralingual, sociolinguisitc, psycholinguistic, cognitive or affective sources

(q) mistakes and errors mistakes a performance error either a random guess or a slip due to a failure to utilize a known system correctly Can be self-corrected by native speakers when attention is called errors a noticeable deviation reflects the lack of the linguistic competence Cannot be self-corrected

(r) identifying and describing errors (i) norms & errors (ii) how to distinguish errors and mistakes? (iii) Describing errors by --- grammatical categories --- general error type: omission (e.g I went to movie.), misinformation, misordering (e.g. I to the store went), addition (e.g. Does can he sing?), substitution (e.g. I lost my road.) --- overt (ungrammatical at the sentence level)/covert errors (grammatically well-formed but not discourse interpretable within the context of communication) --- global (hinder communication)/local (at verbatim level) ---domain/extent by Lennon, 1991 e.g. a scissors (domainphrase, extent- an indefinite article)

(iv) explaining errors: --- systematic, universal, predictable? By repeated systematic observation of learner speech

--- Sources: 1. interlingual transfer: especially in the beginning stages of SLA e.g He goed. 2. intralingual transfer: overgeneralization when learners have begun to acquire parts of the new system 3. context of learning: classroom or social situation faulty concepts from teachers/induced errors/bookish 4. communicative strategies: circumlocution, word coinage, false cognates (by Tarone, 1981), or prefabricated patterns

(s) criticism: (i) positive reinforcement of clear and free communication is also important (fluency). (ii) Overemphasis on production data; comprehension is also important. (iii) It fails to explain avoidance (iv) It too closely focuses on specific language rather than universal aspects of language

(5 ) Stages of learner language development: all are not able to measure overall competence because one can be in different stages of different tenses
(i) Random (presystematic): to guess or experiment e.g. John can to sing (ii) Emergent: one begins to discern a system but then regresses to some previous stage; unable to correct; avoidance of structures and topics (iii) Systematic: more consistent and able to correct errors when pointed out (iv) Stabilization (post-systematic): few errors, able to self-correct

(6) Variability: due to context as the source of variation

(a) capability continuum paradigm by Elaine Tarone (1988): the extent to which both linguistic and situational context may help to describe variation (b) variable competence model by Rod Ellis (1994) (c) criticism: variable -> systematic

(7) Fossilization:
(a) definition: the relatively permanent incorporation of incorrect linguistic forms into a persons L2 competence (b) How do items become fossilized? (i) affective feedback (ii) cognitive feedback (c) Why does fossilization occur? (i) the presence or absence of internal motivating factors (ii) seeking interaction with other people (iii) consciously focusing on forms (iv) ones strategic investment in the learning process

(8) Form-focused instruction:

(a) Does form-focused instruction work? Yes, but it depends on the target structure being taught e.g plurals (i) item learning (effective in instruction)/system learning (ii) the Teachability Hypothesis by Penemann: Instruction can only promote language acquisition if the interlanguage is close to the point when the structure to be taught is acquired in the natural setting; instruction only helps to speed up learners learning process (iii) some structures seem to be permanently affected by instruction because 1. system learning can last longer 2. it depends on the nature of the instruction 3. when learners use the structure frequently (iv) what structures to teach? Marked functions first to trigger the unmarked ones

(b) What kind of form-focused instruction works best? (i) input-based instruction may be more effective than production-based instruction (ii) consciousness-raising by providing learners positive or negative evidence; but positive input may help learners start using some difficult forms but may not be sufficient to destabilize IL and prevent fossilization (c) individual differences are likely to influence the effects of instruction.
(9) Error treatment (a) when to treat errors: the importance of errors, chance of eliciting correct performance (b) what to correct: global errors to be treated only but some utterances are not clearly global or local (c) How to correct: One useful taxonomy by Bailey, 1985 (d) Learners system is a variable, dynamic, and approximate system, but shouldnt be treated as an imperfect system.

11. Communicative competence

(1) Definition
(a) Dell Hymes: highlights the difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence (b) Savignon: Communicative competence is relative and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved, a dynamic and interpersonal construct that can be examined by means of the over performance of two or more individuals. (c) Cummins (i) cognitive/academic language proficiency (context-reduced-> school-oriented) (ii) basic interpersonal communicative skills- the capacity all children acquire to be able to function in daily communication (context-embedded-> face to face communication)

(d)Canale & Swain (i) Grammatical competence: knowledge of lexical items, morphology, syntax. (ii) Discourse competence-ability to connect sentences to form a meaningful whole (iii) Sociolinguistic competence-knowledge of sociocultural rules e.g roles, shared information (iv) Strategic competence: the verbal or non-verbal communicative strategies to compensate for breakdown (e) Bachman (1990) (i) organizational competence- grammatical and textual competence (cohesion and rhetorical organization) (ii) pragmatic competence- illocutionary (ideational, manipulative, heuristic, imaginative) and sociolinguistic (sensitivity to dialect, registers, naturalness, figures of speech)competence

(f) M. Halliday: language functions (i) Instrumental: to manipulate the environment (ii)Regulatory: the control of events e.g. approval (iii)Representational: to make statements, convey facts, explain, report (iv) Interactional: ensure social maintenance (v) Personal: express feelings, emotions, and personality (vi) Heuristic: to acquire language, to learn about the environment (vii) Imaginative: create imaginary systems or ideas

(2) functional syllabuses: (notional-functional syllabus)

(a) curricula are organized around functions like identifying, eporting, denying, declining, invitation, asking permission, apologizing, etc * notion- abstract concepts, contexts or situations e.g. health, travel, education, or shopping (b) controversy: a function is covered, which doesnt mean learners have internalized it for authentic use in the real world

(3) discourse analysis:

(a) the analysis of the relationship between forms and functions of language (b) text attach skills to solve ambiguity: cohesive devices, discourse makers, rhetorical organization

(4) Conversation Analysis:

(a) how to get attention, initiate a conversation, nominate a topic, develop a topic (turn-taking), and terminate a topic (b) Grices Maxims (1967) (i) Quantity: say only as much as necessary for understanding the communication (ii) Quality: say only what is true (iii) Relevance: say only what is relevant (iv) Manner: be clear

(5) Pragmatics
(a) how meaning is conveyed and interpreted (b) illocutionary force (intended meaning of an utterance) (c) cooperative principles

(6) language and gender

(a) girls- more standard language, more uncertainty, rapport, connection, positive feedback, face needs (b) boys-more interruptions, less polite, more value on status, compete for the floor

(7) styles and registers

(a) formal or informal styles (i) Speech styles by formality by Martin Joos (1967) Oratorical (public speaking)->deliberative (classroom lecture)-> consultative (business transactions)-> casual (friends, colleagues)- > intimate (loved ones) (ii) verbal and nonverbal feature in styles (iii) syntax: contractions or deletions in intimate and casual styles (iv) lexicon: from intimate to frozen (on the ball, smart, intelligent, perceptive, and astute) (v) pronunciation: hesitation, misarticulations (b) registers (i) to identify with a particular group and maintain solidarity

(8) Nonverbal communication:

(a) Kinesics: body language (b) eye contact: signal interest, boredom, empathy, hostility, understanding (c) proxemics: physical proximity (d) artifacts: clothing or ornamentation (sense of selfesteem, socioeconomic class, general character) (e) kinethetics: touching (f) olfactory dimensions: smell

Research findings on SLA

(a) Adults and adolescents can acquire a L2 (b) The learners creates a systematic IL with the same systematic errors as the child learning the L1 (c) There are predictable sequences in acquisition (d) Practice doesnt make perfect (e) Knowing a linguistic rule doesnt mean knowing how to use it (f) Isolated explicit error correction is usually ineffective (g) More adult learners fossilize (h) One cannot achieve nativelike command of a L2 in one hour a day (i) The learners task is enormous since language is complex A meaningful context is paramount.

(3) Criteria for a viable theory

(a) chaos/complexity theory by Diane LarsenFreeman (1997) the number and complexity of the variables involved make SLA exceedingly difficult to predict (b) the least a theory of SLA needs to explain by Michael Long (1990): to account for universals, environmental factors, variability in age, acquisition rate, and proficiency level, cognitive and affective factors, form-focused learning, etc.

(4) an Innatist Model: Krashens Input Hypothesis (See Handout A p.25-26) (5) Cognitive models (a) Attention-Processing Models (McLauglin)
(i) controlled processing mechanisms: capacity limited and temporary (ii) automatic processing mechanisms: relatively permanent (iii) an ultimate communicative goal for language learners: peripheral, automatic attention-processing of language (b) Implicit and explicit models (Bialystok) (iv) Implicit linguistic knowledge: information automatically or spontaneously used e.g. childs language (v) Explicit linguistic knowledge: linguistic knowledge

(6) a Social-Constructivist Model

(a) Longs Interaction Hypothesis (vi) the interactional modifications resulting from the negotiation of meaning facilitate acquisition. (vii) Comprehensible input is the result, not the cause of modified interaction. (b) Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development: (viii) Definition: the distance between a childs actual cognitive capacity and the level of potential development (ix) Principles of awareness, autonomy and authenticity lead the learner to Zone of proximal development where learners construct the new language through socially mediated interaction

Innatist (Krashen) Subconscious acquisition superior to learning and monitoring Comprehensible input Low affective filter Natural order of acquisition Zero option for grammar instruction

Cognitive Constructivist (Long, (McLaughlin/Bialystok) Swain & Seliger) Controlled/automatic processing (M) Focal/peripheral attention (M) Restructuring (M) Implicit/explicit (B) Unanalyzed/analyzed knowledge (B) Form-focused instruction Interaction hypothesis Intake through social interaction Output hypothesis (Swain) High Input Generators (Seliger) Authenticity Task-basked instruction