Biology 11 (Fundamentals of Biology I)

Part V. ANIMALS: Form and Function

Instructor: EAA, IKCF, SDJ, JPQ

Main References: (1) Biology by Campbell and Reece (2) Integrated Principles of Zoology by Hickman et al.

ANIMALS : Form and Function

A. Animal Cell Types and Tissues B. Animal Systems and Processes 1. Support and Protection 2. Movement 3. Digestion and Nutrition 4. Gas Exchange 5. Transport/Circulation 6. Excretion and Osmoregulation 7. Regulatory Mechanisms

 Life is characterized by hierarchical levels of organization, each with emergent properties.

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity 1. Protoplasmic grade of organization

unicellular organisms all life functions are confined within the boundaries of a single cell protoplasm is differentiated into organelles

Paramecium

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity 2. Cellular grade of organization

aggregation of cells that are functionally differentiated a division of labor is evident

Volvox

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity 3. Cell-tissue grade of organization

aggregation of similar cells into definite patterns of layers, thus becoming a tissue

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity 4. Tissue-organ grade of organization

an aggregation of tissues into organs

Planaria

Levels of Organization in Organismal Complexity 5. Organ-system grade of organization

organs work together to perform some function systems are associated with basic body functions

Ribbon worm

Animal Cell Types

Four main categories of animal tissues 1. Epithelial Tissue 2. Connective Tissue

3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

1. Epithelial Tissue covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body

compact; occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells little intercellular substance

polarized

1. Epithelial Tissue the free surface of the epithelium is exposed to air or fluid structures on free surfaces: microvilli, cilia, flagella the cells at the base of the barrier are attached to a basement membrane, a dense mat of extracellular matrix (now called basal lamina)

1. Epithelial Tissue cells are closely joined and in many epithelia, the cells are riveted together by tight junctions animals have 3 main types of intercellular links: tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions

Tight junction

0.5 m

membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming continuous belts around cells prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across a layer of epithelial cells

 fasten cells together into strong sheets, much like rivets reinforced by intermediate filaments of keratin attach muscle cells to each other in a muscle
Desmosome

1 m

Gap junction

0.1 m

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells salt ions, sugar, amino acids, and other small molecules can pass

1. Epithelial Tissue
Function protection absorption secretion excretion Organ skin intestine stomach kidney Tissue/cell squamous columnar glandular cuboidal

1. Epithelial Tissue Types: simple epithelium stratified epithelium Types of epithelial cells: Cuboidal like dice Squamous flat like tiles Columnar like bricks on end

 composed of flattened cells

form a continuous delicate lining of blood capillaries, lungs, and other surfaces permits the passive diffusion of gases and tissue fluids into and out of cavities

 consists of 2 to many layers of cells

adapted to withstand mild mechanical abrasion

basal layers of cells undergoes continuous mitotic divisions

lines the oral cavity, esophagus, anal canal, vagina of mammals; skin

 short, boxlike cells

collecting duct in kidney

usually lines small ducts and tubules may have active secretory and absorptive functions

roof of mouth of toad

like cuboidal epithelium but cells are taller

found on highly absorptive surfaces such as intestinal tract and female reproductive tract
in some organs cells may be ciliated

stratified columnar epithelium (salivary duct)

consists of at least two layers of cells

found along some areas of the anorectal region and salivary duct

 a type of stratified epithelium

specialized to accommodate great stretching

found in the urinary tract and bladder

Glandular epithelia, absorb or secrete chemical solutions

Types based on how products are released: a. exocrine (unicellular or multicellular)

b. endocrine c. mixed (e.g., pancreas)

Special names of some epithelial tissue:

a. mesothelium squamous cells lining serous cavities such as peritoneal and pleural cavities and lining of visceral organs b. endothelium lining of blood and lymph vessels

2. Connective Tissue mechanical support bind structures to preserve integrity of organization exchange of metabolites between blood and tissues storage of energy reserve in adipose tissues protection against infection repair

2. Connective Tissue paucity of cells; more intercellular substance (fibers and ground substance) the extracellular matrix generally consists of a web of fibers embedded in a uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid

2. Connective Tissue amorphous ground substance - glycosaminoglycans such as chondroitin sulfate - permit diffusion of nutrients, substances, water, gases, and wastes - important in areas where small blood vessels are absent

2. Connective Tissue Types of cells: A. fixed - fibroblast/fibrocyte - mesenchymal

- adipose
- fixed macrophage B. wandering (from blood) - monocyte - lymphocyte - plasma cell - eosinophil - mast cell

Three kinds of connective tissue fibers: Collagenous fibers (white)

made of collagen nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise

Elastic fibers (yellow)

long threads of elastin elastin fiber provides a rubbery quality

Reticular fibers (branching)

very thin and branched composed of collagen they form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues

Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue

33

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates A. Fibrous connective tissue

dense due to its large number of collagenous fibers the fibers are organized into parallel bundles forms tendons and ligaments

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates B. Loose connective tissue

binds epithelia to underlying tissues functions as packing materials, holding organs in place has all three fiber types two cell types predominate in its fibrous mesh - fibroblasts - macrophages

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates C. Adipose tissue

specialized form of loose connective tissue store fat in adipose cells

pads and insulates the body

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates D. Cartilage

has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a substance called chondroitin sulfate, a protein-carbohydrate complex chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate

 Hyaline cartilage
bluish white, translucent, and homogenous has significant proportion of collagen fibers covers joint surfaces and rib ends present in the nose, larynx, and trachea skeletal cartilage in the embryos of all vertebrates skeletal cartilage of adults sharks and rays support and reinforcement

 Elastic cartilage
contains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic fibers external ears, eustachian tube, epiglottis maintains a structures shape while allowing great flexibility

 Fibrocartilage
contains many large collagenous fibers intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, disks of knee joint, and pads between femur and tibia absorbs compression shock

Collagen fiber Chondrocyte in lacuna

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates E. Bone

the skeleton supporting most vertebrates mineralized connective tissue Osteoblasts deposit a matrix of collagen then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine and harden within the matrix into the mineral hydroxyapatite

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Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates F. Blood

the matrix is a liquid called plasma, consisting of water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins suspended in the plasma are erythrocytes, leukocytes and cell fragments called platelets

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood Plasma (55 %)

1. water (90% of plasma) 3. gases (O2, CO2, N) 2. dissolved solids a. proteins fibrinogen (synthesized by the liver) albumin (synthesized by the liver) globulin b. supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat-like substances, amino acids, salts) c. cell products (enzyme, hormones, antibodies) d. cellular waste products (urea, uric acid)

Blood Formed elements (45 %)

1. red blood cells (erythrocyte) - biconcave - transport of O2 and CO2 - nucleated in fish, amphibians, reptiles, and birds 2. white blood cells (leukocyte/leucocyte) - granular leukocyte/granulocyte/polymorphonuclear leukocyte/polymorph - agranular leukocyte/agranulocyte/non-glanular leukocyte/mononuclear

Blood Formed elements (45 %)

3. platelets - found within the confines of blood vessels - for blood coagulation - no nucleus; formed from megakaryocyte - called thrombocyte in amphibian, reptile, and bird

Types of White Blood Cells

Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic granule/cytoplasm Other features/ functions phagocytic

A. granulocyte
1. neutrophil 60-75 2-5 or more thin lobes, connected by slender chromatic threads fine; dont stain well at neutral pH with either acid or basic stain granules, coarse; stain pinkish red with acid stain

2. eosinophil

2-5

2 oval lobes linked by thread-like chromatin

against helminthic infections

3. basophil

0.5-2

nuclei stain very faintly, often obscured by cytoplasmic granules; U or J-shaped

stain blue with basic dye

inflammatory reaction

Types of White Blood Cells

Type % Nucleus Cytoplasmic granule/cytoplasm Other features/ functions smallest; antibody production

B. agranulocyte
1. lymphocyte 20-25 large, somewhat spherical with some indentations and only slightly concentric position narrow rim of cytoplasm

2. monocyte

3-8

nuclei vary slightly, indented ovals to horseshoe shaped structure

large amount of cytoplasm

biggest; becomes macrophage; phagocytic

3. Muscle Tissue composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses

most abundant tissue in most animals

muscle contraction accounts for most of the energy-consuming cellular work in active animals

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

smooth muscle

spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus cells have no striations double innervation by parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous sytem; involuntary blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract functions in movement of substances in lumens of body

skeletal muscle has cylindrical and striated cells with multiple nuclei (syncitial) occurs in muscles attached to skeleton single innervation by motor nerve functions in voluntary movement of body

cardiac muscle

has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each with a single nucleus
double innervation by parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system; involuntary occurs in the wall of the heart functions in the pumping of blood

4. Nervous Tissue irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to another neuron functional unit of nervous tissue

Types of neurons: sensory (afferent) motor (efferent) interneuron

Animal Body Plans

Symmetry
refers to balanced proportions correspondence in size and shape of parts on opposite sides of a median plane

Spherical Symmetry

any plane passing through the center divides a body into equivalent or mirrored halves

found chiefly among some unicellular forms

rare in animals best suited for floating and rolling

Radial Symmetry

body can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through the longitudinal axis

found in some sponges and hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins

usually sessile, free floating or weakly swimming

Biradial Symmetry

only two planes passing through the longitudinal axis produce mirrored halves because of some part that is single or paired comb jellies

Bilateral Symmetry

body can be divided along a sagittal plane into mirrored portions right and left halves much better suited for directional (forward) movement strongly associated with cephalization

Segmentation
metamerism serial repetition of similar body segments along the longitudinal axis of the body segment (metamere or somite)