RELATIONAL APPROACHES TO CAREER DEVELOPMENT

Prepared By: Marylou Lao Natividad

Objectives
Relational Approaches to Career Development wants to know:

What impact do parents and others have on the occupational choice of their children? What impact does the child-raising experience have on the career choices and decisionmaking styles of children? What methods can counsellors use to do career guidance?

Contents

ANNE ROES PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Anne Roe

The first researcher to develop a theory of career development that focused on the importance of parents influence on childhood development.

Background

The momentum for the study of parental impact on career development comes from the work of Sigmund Freud and his influence on psychodynamic explanations of personal development.

Roes Personality Development Theory

To predict occupational selection based on individual differences (Biological, Sociological, Psychological) Focuses on predicting occupational selection based on the psychological needs that develop from the interaction between children and their parents.

Roes Personality Development Theory

Interested in the attitudes of parents toward their children than in the specific ways in which parents behave toward their children. Roes classification system deals with the attitude towards or away from the child.

Roes 3 Types of Parental Attitudes

Classified early parent-child relationships into 3 types with 2 sub-classifications: Concentration on the child
Emotional

Concentration: Overprotective Emotional Concentration: Overdemanding

Avoidance of the child

Methods

of avoidance: Rejection Methods of avoidance: Neglect

Acceptance of the child independency and attention

Relatively

tension-free environment: Casual acceptance

Roe believes that...

The variety of parental attitudes bring about certain types of personalities in the child. Children reared in:
Overprotective

or Overdemanding homes = likely to become self-centered Rejecting homes = likely to develop attitude against than toward people (aggressive or defensive attitude of the children) Accepting Homes = likely not to be aggressive or defensive (likely to be interested in people than data or things)

Examples of the Theory

Roe associated the attitudes toward or away from people to general patterns to different occupational groups.
Service Occupations Overprotective home; Loving acceptance home Scientific Occupations (prefer things or data than interaction with people) - Avoided homes, ignored / rejected by parents
Social

Limitations of Roes Personality Development Theory

Difficulty of making predictions about adult behaviour from early childhood behaviour and parental child raising strategies Usage of the retrospective data can be faulty because of selective and distant memory Research did not deal with differences in childraising techniques between parents, or with techniques that may have changed with time

ATTACHMENT THEORY

Attachment Theory

Studies the role that attachments (primarily parental) play in shaping the life of an individual (Erdman and Caffrey, 2003) Grew out of object relations theory, a development of psychoanalysis, which emphasizes the relationship that the infant has with others, particularly the mother. (Sharf, 2003) Studies the importance of attachment, separation and loss in human development. Interested in how individuals sense of being worthwhile and views of their own competence develop together with their

Strange Situation Method

Involves making unobtrusive observations of children when the mother comes and goes, when a stranger enters, and when the child is alone.

Strange Situation Method

3 types of responding occurs / found:

Secure

Pattern: the infant responds to the caregiver easily and is able to continue exploratory behaviour. Pattern: the infant experiences the caregiver as being inconsistent, the child becomes anxious. The childs view of Self becomes uncertain, as the childs view of others. As such results in decreased exploratory behaviour. Pattern: the infant ignores and rejects care that is offered by an adult. Tendency to develop a sense of being alone in the world and of being unable to trust others.

AnxiousAmbivalent

Avoidant

Research Results on Strange Situation Method

These patterns are stable during the first 6 years of life and are different from infant moods or temperament (Erdman & Caffrey, 2003) Attachment patterns are less consistent in families with high stress than in those with low stress Suggests that children who have secure pattern of attachment in their 6 years of life are more willing to explore relationships with others and more willing to play with objects or

Attachment Theory Analogy

Secure Pattern = Positive Output to children

Freely

explores world Develops social competence through out life Becomes more responsible Becomes more independent Exhibits stable sense of vocational identity Exhibits minimal anxiety or indecision about career choice Confidence in career decision making Realistic about career choices

(Lucas,1999); (Gravino, 2002); (Puffer, 1999)

Attachment Theory Analogy

Career Indecision results from:

Attachment

security issues Attachment anxiety Paternal and Maternal separation Paternal and Maternal conflictual independence

(Tokar, Withrow, Hall and Moradi, 2003)

Resulting to:
Anxiety

about career choice General indecisiveness Need for career information Need for more knowledge about self

(Tyson, 1999)

Caution to Counsellors using the Strange Situation Method

When working with clients who are anxious about their career choice: Ask about past or current strains in parental relationships

Limitations to Attachment Theory

No direct evidence to support the Attachment Theory assumptions because it has the difficult task of trying to predict behaviour over a long period. Longitudinal studies for this type are rare.

PARENT CHILD CAREER INTERACTIONS

Parent-Child Career Interactions

Joint Action Approach (Young, Valach

& Collin, 2002)

Principle Proponent: Richard Young Focuses on:

How

parents and children perceive career decision making and their areas of agreement and disagreement Feelings and emotions from parentadolescent conversations Establishing common ground or area of agreement in Parent and children conversations

Joint Action Approach

Identifies 4 important goal-directed actions (projects) that families use:

relationships

in the family Identity issues Reporting objectives Attention to cultural goals

Process of conversation includes:

Exploring of ideas Formulating plans Validating plans Challenging ideas

Parent Involved Career Exploration (PICE)

A 5 step method / technique in career counselling includes parents and children Proponent: Amundson and Penner, 1998 Designed for students ages 14-18 with parents involvement in the counselling sessions Typically done in one session An adjunct counselling approach that will work best when both student and parent are interested and motivated to explore careers Highlights the importance of the role of parents in the career exploration of their children

PICE Method

1. Introduction
The

whole process is introduced so that students and parents can understand how counselling can be helpful to them

2. Pattern Identification Exercises (PIE)

Identification

of the students Strengths and Weaknesses that are related to career development

3. Discussion of school preferences and performance

Students

talk about what they like about their courses

PICE Method

4. Perspective on education and labour market possibilities ( Discussion of)

Labour

market trends; Flexibility in choices; Relation of school and work activities; Talking for Information, admissions standards

5. Planning / Setting the next step

Occurs

at the end of the session Counsellors time to give student and parent information about resources in the school and the community

FAMILY SYSTEMS THERAPY

Family Systems Theory

Bowen family systems theory is a theory of human behaviour that views the family as an emotional unit and uses systems thinking to describe the complex interactions in the unit. Family members so profoundly affect each other's thoughts, feelings, and actions that it often seems as if people are living under the same "emotional skin." People solicit each other's attention, approval, and support and react to each other's needs, expectations, and distress. The connectedness

Family Systems Therapy

Describe as enmeshed and disengaged (Goldenberg & Goldenberg, 2004)

Enmeshed

Family the responsibilities of the family are

unclear Disengaged Family lots of limitations and rigidness and has little warmth or emotionality

Family relationships are stronger predictors of career development than gender, socioeconomic status or educational achievement (Penick and Jepsen, 1992)

Genogram Approach

Best for clients who are trying to choose an occupation with the use of family career patterns. It is a way of drawing relationships in a family and indicating important information about them. (Magnuson and Shaw, 2003) It encourages client self-disclosure, organizes relevant information about the attitudes of the family members affecting the client . (Sueyoshi, Rivera &
Ponterotto, 2001)

Genogram Approach

Gather relevant information about family and writing important parts of the information on the genogram, inclusive of their occupational information.
circles Males squares Female Client double circle Male client double square
Females

Exploration of the clients view of him/her self; others and the world of work.

Genogram Sample

Using the Genogram

Counsellors can: Find out how different family members served as role models for attitudes toward work and further education
Did

certain relatives stereotype careers by gender Did the family value certain occupations Did the family members have different attitudes toward obtaining more education after high school/college

Discuss topics above to help the client better understand the origin and the content of their own attitudes toward career decision making.

SUSAN D. PHILLIPS DEVELOPMENTAL-RELATIONAL MODEL

Phillips Developmental-Relational Model

Focused on relationships that include friends, siblings, and teachers as they effect the career choices of individuals. (Blustein, Schultheiss & Flum, 2004; Phillips, Carlson, Christopher-Sisk, & Gravino, 2001; Schultheiss, 2003) Interested in the ways that people help (or do not help) others as they struggle with

Phillips Developmental-Relational Model

It has been applied to a variety of life decisions with career decision making receiving considerable attention. Has 2 Major Themes
of Others includes 7 ways people in an individuals life involve themselves in career decision making Self-Directedness includes 8 ways the decision maker participate in finding other people to help in his/her career decision making.
Actions

Actions of Others

Continuum from low/little involvement of others to high/action involvement of others. Focuses on how people influence a decision maker.

Nonactive Support

Not involved with decision makers choice process. Somewhat supportive, but no guidance is given to the person making the decision.

Unconditional Support

Actively supportive of the decision maker Listens to and supports the decision maker Expresses his or her view that the decision maker is making a decision that they think is good, regardless of what the

Information Provided

Provides information to the decision maker The information given is related to the options that the decision maker has Information is provided without suggestions of what decision would be best

Alternatives Provided

Decision makers are provided with careerrelated opportunities May provide information about a possible job or an activity that will further a persons career development

Push / Nudge

The individual is guiding the decision maker to make a particular choice. The other person has a point of view about what is right for the decision maker and suggests it. Has significant increase in involvement or activity in anothers decision-making process.

Forced Guidance

An individual may offer suggestions and guidance without considering the interests or desires of the decision maker. Individuals are telling others what they think would be best for the decision maker

Criticism

The decision maker is being told what he/she can do, and also criticizes the individual in the process. The criticism may be of the individuals abilities, interests, values, or goals.

Caution for Counsellors

More involved statements are likely to come from individuals who know the decisions makers well, such as parents. Needs awareness on a clients decision Help clients consider alternatives and options

Self-Directedness

There is an increasing effectiveness of making good use of other people in career decision making. The following categories range from not using others at all to using them in a planful way.

Self-Directedness

Confident Independence (false confidence)

Person appears to be confident but do not really know what they plan to do in the future or what their interests, abilities, and values are.

Unsuccessful Recruitment

Have not been able to get help from others in a way that has been useful to them. They may have tried to get help previously, but those previous attempts may not have helped them make career decisions.

Insecure Use of Others

The individual tends to be unsure of his/her own ability to make decisions although he/she may seek out the advice of others and think about their advice. They hope that by talking to others, they will be better able to

Cautious

Those who are careful not to make mistakes when they are making decisions. They move toward making decisions more quickly than those in the Insecure Use of Others category, but consider the views of others carefully.

Seeking Information about Self

Individual maybe unsure of their interests, abilities, or values. Actively seeks out others to give them perspectives about what they may be good at or what they may like. May be likely to seek out information from those who know them well.

Weighing Options

An individual finds it useful to ask others to help them with one or more parts of the decision-making process. They take responsibility for making the decision but find others opinions to be important in figuring out what to do.

Sounding Board

Some individuals like to have others listen to their decision-making process. They like to talk out their point of view with other people but do not expect them to help in making any decision.

Systematic

Individuals making career decisions thoughtfully and in a planful manner Makes rational approach to decision making Considers the input of others, but takes responsibility for making their decision.

Caution for Counsellors

Know the ways in which individuals involve other people to be able to decide on how to progress in discussing abilities, interests, values, and occupational information Show importance of others in the decisionmaking process Be aware that individuals make different decisions in different ways.
Above all, counsellors need to attend to both Actions of Others and Self Directedness when talking with their clients.

Principal Reference
Sharf, R. S. (2010). Applying career development theory to counseling (5th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole. Zunker, V. G. (2012). Career counseling: A holistic approach (7th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.

Supporting References
Amundson, N.E., & Penner, K. (1998). Parent involved career exploration. Career Development Quarterly, 47, 135-144.

Blustein, D.L., Schultheiss, D.E., & Flum, H. Toward a relational perspective of the psychology of career and working: A social constructivist analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64, 423-440.
Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Attachment (Vol. I). London: Tavistock. Erdman, P., & Caffrey, T. (Eds.) (2003). Attachment and family systems: Conceptual, empirical, and therapeutic relatedness. New York: Brunner-Routledge.

Goldenberg, H., & Goldenberg, I. (2004). Family therapy: An overview (7th ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Gravino, K. L. (2002). The role of parental attachment and psychological separation in the career decisionmaking process (Doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Albany, December 2002). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B, 63/5-B, 2650. Lucas, C. (1999). Predicting at-risk adolescent work adjustment: An application and extension of attachment theory (Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59/7B, 3747. Magnuson, S., & Shaw, H.E. (2003). Adaptations of the multifaceted genogram in counseling, training, and supervision. Family Journal-Counseling & Therapy for Couples & Families, 11, 45-54. Penick, N.I., & Jepsen, D.A. (1992). Family functioning and adolescent career development. Career Development Quarterly, 40, 208-222.

Supporting References
Phillips, S. D., Carlson, C., Christopher-Sisk, E., & Gravino, K. L. (2001). Treating clients with decision making problems: A developmental-relational model. In L. VandeCreek & T. L. Jackson (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book (Vol. 19, pp. 129-140). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Press. Puffer, K. A. (1999). A study of collegians family activities, roles, and interpersonal relations and their vocational identity, career choice commitment and decision making: An application of the development contextual framework (Doctoral dissertation, Purdue University, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59/12-A,4370. Sueyoshi, L.A., Rivera, L., & Ponterotto, l. G. (2001). The family genogram as a tool in multicultural career counseling. In J. G. Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, & C. M. Alexander (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed., pp. 655-671). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Tokar, D. M., Withrow, J. R., Hall, R. J., & Moradi, B. (2003). Psychological separation, attachment security, vocational self-concept, crystallization, and career indecision: A structural equation analysis. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 3-19.

Tyson, T. S. (1999). The relation of parental attachment to career indecision subtypes of college students (Doctoral dissertation, New York University, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 59/9-B, 5115.
Young, R. A., Valach, L., & Collin, A. (2002). A contextualist explanation of career. In D. Brown & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (4th ed., pp. 206-2520. San farncisco: JosseyBass.

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