Information Technology

Introduction to Computers

Definitions of computer : The ability to access a computer or a network from a remote site. An electronic, digital device that stores and processes information. A machine that accepts input, processes it according to specified rules, and produces output. (IEEE) (1) A functional unit that can perform substantial computations, including numerous arithmetic operations, or logic operations, without human intervention during a run. (2) A functional programmable unit that consists of one or more associated processing units and peripheral equipment, that is controlled by internally stored programs, and that can perform substantial computations, including numerous arithmetic operations, or logic operations, without human intervention.

The Actual Computer Your "computer" is a collection of devices that function as a unit. The most basic collection includes a Computer CPU, a Monitor, a Keyboard, and a Mouse. The Computer CPU is normally a rectangular box that sits on your desktop (called a "Desktop Case") or next to your knee under the desk (called a "Tower Case"). The computer's CPU is actually a small electronic device inside the case but the term is often used to refer to the whole collection of electronics inside the box.

Computer Components A computer is an electronic device which stores and processes information. To function effectively, a computer must perform several types of functions. Each function is handled by a separate component. Basically, there are four types of components:

Input devices
output devices storage units

central processing units

Input Device. Unlike the human brain, a computer cannot generate new ideas by itself. Therefore a computer must receive information or instructions from elsewhere. You communicate with your computer through an input device. The input device is the yes or the ears of the computer due to the method that it takes in new information. A computer must have at least one input device. Most computers have more than one input device. Examples of input devices include: keyboard mouse

trackball

tablet (used by some CAD programs and drawing or painting programs) touch screen (you press an area on the screen to tell the computer what you want to do)

Output Device. In order to convey information back to the user, a computer must have a way of talking back. The output device is the mouth of the computer, or the way it sends out information. Examples of output devices include: monitor

printer
plotter

Storage Units. The computer must have a place to store all of the information it processes. A storage unit can be any medium in which that information is stored. Examples of storage units include:

floppy disk
hard disk magnetic tape CD-ROM videodisc

A hard disk is normally installed in the main body of the computers central processing unit; therefore it is called an internal hard disk. In some cases, a hard disk may be attached with a cable to the central processing unit. This is an external hard disk.
The other types of storage units all require that the computer be equipped to read data from those types of media. To store data on a floppy disk, the computer must have a floppy disk drive; to store data on a magnet tape, the computer must be concerto a tape drive,; to use data from a CD-ROM, it must have a connection to a CD-ROM drive. A floppy disk drive can be built into the computer or can be connected externally. Most other types of drives (tape drive, CD-ROM drive, videodisc player) are external hardware which are connected with a cable to the computers central processing unit.

All storage devices are evaluated by how much data they can hold. The amount of data they hold is usually measured in megabytes (Mb).

Memory and Speed

Computers also depend on two other types of components which are essential to memory and speed. In addition to storage (hard disk) capacity, memory and speed indicate the power of the computer. Memory refers to the computers capacity for storing information while that information is processed. Memory is the PRIMARY STORAGE capability of the computer. Floppy disks and hard disks are types of SECONDARY STORAGE. There are two types of internal memory: 1) ramdom-access memory (RAM) and read-only memory (ROM).

ROM. Certain information essential for the operation of the computer is stored internally on chips on the computers central processing unit (CPU) board. These chips represent the machines ROM. The instructions provided by ROM usually contain simple programs that tell the computer where to find and load the computers operating system, and other basic information. Users do not usually need to know much about ROM or the information contained therein. The information contained on the ROM chips is not usually upgraded or altered.

RAM. RAM is much more important from the users perspective. RAM or random-access memory is the computers active memory. It is the way the computer stores data or program instructions that it is actively using. So, when you recieve a document from a floppy diskette and begin editing that document using a word processing program, the document itself is held in RAM. The computer does not dynamically alter the document on the floppy as you write, it alters only the copy of the document held in RAM. Then, before you quit the program, you must save the RAM version of the document to the floppy diskette, replacing the earlier version with the later version. The more RAM a computer has, the greater its capability to work on may things at once. Many sophisticated software packages require RAM to perform more complicated functions. RAM, like secondary storage, is measured in megabytes (Mb).

Speed. Every computer has an electronic circuit (called a clock) which generated evenly spaced pulses at a very rapid rate. These pulses set the pace at which operations are processed by the computers central processing unit (CPU). The computers clock speed is measured in mega Hertz (mHz). The higher the speed, the faster the computer, and hence the more capable it is of performing sophisticated and complex functions. The original IBM PC operated at a speed of 4.77 Mhz.

Data Files
Data and Program Files. When you write and save a paper using a word processing program, you have created a data file. The data contained in that file (document) are the individual words, letters and numbers you typed as you wrote the paper. The software that enables you to write that paper on the computer is called the program file. The program file (for example, WordPerfect) is an independent set of instructions which tell the computer what to do. The data file is just information that contains the words and numbers which the program processes.

Hardware The hardware are the parts of computer itself including the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and related microchips and micro-circuitry, Keyboards, Monitors, case and drives (floppy, hard, CD, DVD, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts called peripheral components or devices include mouse, printers, modems, scanners,digital cameras and cards (sound,colour, video) etc... Together they are often referred to as a personal computers or PCs.

Computer Peripherals Computer peripherals are any electronic devices that can be hooked up to a computer other than the standard input-output devices (monitor, keyboard,mouse). Peripheral devices include speakers, microphones, printers, scanners, digital cameras, plotters, and modems. Peripherals often require special software packages called "drivers". These drivers are usually included with the peripheral at purchase time.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) - Though the term relates to a specific chip or the processor a CPU's performance is determined by the the rest of the computers circuitry and chips.
Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel, is the most common CPU though there are many other companies that produce processors for personal computers. One example is the CPU made by Motorola which is used in Apple computers. With faster processors the clock speed becomes more important. Compared to some of the first computers which operated at below 30 megahertz (MHz) the Pentium chips began at 75 MHz in the late 1990's. As of mid 2003 speeds now exceed 3000+ MHz or 3 gigahertz (GHz) . It depends on the circuit board that the chip is housed in, or the motherboard, as to whether you are able to upgrade to a faster chip. The motherboard contains the circuitry and connections that allow the various component to communicate with each other.

Keyboard - The keyboard is used to type information into the computer or input information. There are many different keyboard layouts and sizes with the most common for Latin based languages being the QWERTY layout (named for the first 6 keys). The standard keyboard has 101 keys. Notebooks have embedded keys accessible by special keys or by pressing key combinations (CTRL or Command and P for example). Ergonomically designed keyboards are designed to make typing easier. Some of the keys have a special use. There are referred to as command. The 3 most common are the Control or CTRL, Alternate or Alt and the Shift keys though there can be more (the Windows key for example or the Command key). Each key on a standard keyboard has one or two characters. Press the key to get the lower character and hold Shift to get the upper.

Disk Drives - All disks need a drive to get information off - or read - and put information on the disk - or write. Each drive is designed for a specific type of disk whether it is a CD, DVD, hard disk or floppy. Often the term 'disk' and 'drive' are used to describe the same thing but it helps to understand that the disk is the storage device which contains computer files - or software - and the drive is the mechanism that runs the disk.

Mouse - Most modern computers today are run using a mouse controlled pointer. Generally if the mouse has two buttons the left one is used to select objects and text and the right one is used to access menus. If the mouse has one button (Mac for instance) it controls all the activity and a mouse with a third buttons can be used by specific software programs. One type of mouse has a round ball under the bottom of the mouse that rolls and turns two wheels which control the direction of the pointer on the screen. Another type of mouse uses an optical system to track the movement of the mouse.

Monitors - The monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is called outputting information. When the computer needs more information it will display a message on the screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in many types and sizes from the simple monochrome (one colour) screen to full colour screens. Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube and most notebooks use a liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor. To get the full benefit of today's software with full colour graphics and animation, computers need a color monitor with a display or graphics card. Printers - The printer takes the information on your screen and transfers it to paper or a hard copy. There are many different types of printers with various levels of quality. The three basic types of printer are; dot matrix, inkjet, and laser. Dot matrix printers work like a typewriter transferring ink from a ribbon to paper with a series or 'matrix' of tiny pins. Ink jet printers work like dot matrix printers but fires a stream of ink from a cartridge directly onto the paper. Laser printers use the same technology as a photocopier using heat to transfer toner onto paper.

Modem - A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone lines or cable. The term stands for modulate and demodulate which changes the signal from digital, which computers use, to analog, which telephones use and then back again. A high speed connection also requires a modem but because the information is transferred digitally it isn't required to change the signal from digital to analog but is used to create the connection between your computer and the computer you are connecting with. Modems are measured by the speed that the information is transferred. The measuring tool is called the baud rate. Originally modems worked at speeds below 2400 baud but today analog speeds of 56,000 are common. Cable, wireless or digital subscriber lines (DSL) modems can transfer information much faster with rates of 300,000 baud and up. Modems also use Error Correction which corrects for transmission errors by constantly checking whether the information was received properly or not and compression which allows for faster data transfer rates. Information is transferred in packets. Each packet is checked for errors and is re-sent if there is an error.

Anyone who has used the Internet has noticed that at times the information travels at different speeds. Depending on the amount of information that is being transferred the information will arrive it's destination at different times. The amount of information that can travel through a line is limited. This limit is called bandwidth.

Scanners- Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A scanner 'scans' the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time and transfers it to the computer as a series of bits or a bitmap. You can then take that image and use it in a paint program, send it out as a fax or print it. With optional Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software you can convert printed documents such as newspaper articles to text that can be used in your word processor.
Digital cameras allow you to take digital photographs. The images are stored on a memory chip or disk that can be transferred to your computer. Some cameras can also capture sound and video.

Cards - Cards are components added to computers to increase their capability. When adding a peripheral device make sure that your computer has a slot of the type needed by the device.
Sound cards allow computers to produce sound like music and voice. The older sound cards were 8 bit then 16 bit then 32 bit. Though human ear can't distinguish the fine difference between sounds produced by the more powerful sound card they allow for more complex music and music production. Colour cards allow computers to produce colour (with a colour monitor of course). The first colour cards were 2 bit which produced 4 colours [CGA]. It was amazing what could be done with those 4 colours. Next came 4 bit allowing for 16 [EGA and VGA ] colours Then came 16 bit allowing for 1064 colours and then 24 bit which allows for almost 17 million colours and now 32 bit is standard allowing monitors to display almost a billion separate colours.

Video cards allow computers to display video and animation. Some video cards allow computers to display television as well as capture frames from video. A video card with a digital video camera allows computers users to produce live video. A high speed or network connection is needed for effective video transmission.
Network cards allow computers to connect together to communicate with each other. Network cards have connections for cable, thin wire or wireless networks.

Cables connect internal components to the Motherboard, which is a board with series of electronic path ways and connections allowing the CPU to communicate with the other components of the computer.

Software The software is the information that the computer uses to get the job done. Software needs to be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used for process of accessing software including running, executing, starting up, opening, and others. Computer programs allow users to complete tasks. A program can also be referred to as an application and the two words are used interchangeably. Examples of software programs or applications would be the Operating System (DOS, Windows 9x/Millenium/XP, O/S2, UNIX, MacOS 9.x/10.x and various others), Wordprocessor (typing letters), Spreadsheet (financial info), Database (inventory control and address book), Graphics Program, Internet Browser, Email and many others. As well any document that you create, graphic you design, sound you compose, file you make, letter you write, email you send or anything that you create on your computer is referred to as software. All software is stored in Files. Software is stored on a disk or tape whether that disk is a floppy, hard disk, CD, tape or one of the dozens of other storage devices available.

There are millions of different pieces of software available for almost every conceivable need. Software is available commercially through stores and mail order and also available on the Internet. Software is also available through an Open Source license which allows anyone to use the Open Source software free of charge as long as the license is maintained. If you can't find the application that you need software development companies can custom design software for you. The largest software companies offer packages of software or suites that include many of the programs that the average person or business needs. Software packages or suites contain programs that work together and share information, making it easier to combine that information in versatile ways. For example when writing a letter you can get the mailing address from an address book, include a letterhead from a graphics program and included a financial chart from a spreadsheet and combine this collection of information in the body of the letter.

The three basic types of software are; commercial, shareware and open source software. Some software is also release into the public domain without a license. Commercial software comes prepackaged and is available from software stores and through the Internet. Shareware is software developed by individual and small companies that cannot afford to market their software world wide or by a company that wants to release a demonstration version of their commercial product. You will have an evaluation period in which you can decide whether to purchase the product or not. Shareware software often is disabled in some way and has a notice attached to explain the legal requirements for using the product. Open Source software is created by generous programmers and released into the public domain for public use. There is usually a copyright notice that must remain with the software product. Open Source software is not public domain in that the company or individual that develops the software retains ownership of the program but the software can be used freely. Many popular Open Source applications are being developed and upgraded regularly by individuals and companies that believe in the Open Source concept.

Operating Systems All computers need some sort of Operating System (OS). The majority of modern home computers use some form of Microsoft's operating systems. The original Microsoft operating system was called DOS (Disk Operating System) though most computers use Windows. Windows comes in various versions beginning with version 3.x then 95, 98, ME and currently XP. A few computers use IBM's O/S2. Apple's Mac use their own operating system beginning with OS 1 though most modern Macs use version 8.x or 9.x. Apple's latest version is OS 10.1.x. In the past large companies and institutions would have an operating system design exclusively for them but as the commercial operating systems become more sophisticated the benefits of this practice is becoming less apparent. Some computer professionals, Internet Service Providers (ISP) and mainframe computer users use an operating system such as UNIX (or a variant such as Linux), Windows NT or 2000 (Win2k) or one of the other network or server based operating systems. There are many smaller operating systems out there. The problem is that software is currently being developed only for the main operating systems and only the newest versions of these OS. Many older computers with unique operating systems have lots of software already developed for them but there is very little new software being developed for the older computers. The older proprietary operating systems are less likely to offer technical support than the more modern operating systems.

The operating system controls the input and output or directs the flow of information to and from the CPU. Much of this is done automatically by the system but it is possible to modify and control your system if you need to. When you turn your computer on it first needs to load the operating system sometimes referred to a booting up. Basically the computer starts from scratch every time you turn the power on. It checks all its components and will usually display a message if there is a problem. Loading the system is usually automatic. Once the system is loaded the user can start the application or program that they are going to use.

Most computer users will run Microsoft Windows , Linux as their operating system. These OS are Graphic User Interface (GUI) which allows the user to control or run the computer using a Mouse and Icons. The user simply moves the mouse on a flat surface, rolls the trackball, or moves their hand over the touchpad to control a pointer. They then choose the option they want by pressing a button or touching the pad. Without a GUI the user controls the computer using the keys on the keyboard. This is referred to as a Command Line Interface (CLI)

Disk and Storage

Disks are used to store information. All information on computers are stored in files. The size of a file is measured in bytes. A byte is approximately one character (letter 'a', number '1', symbol '?' etc....). About a thousand bytes is a kilobyte (KB). About a million bytes is a megabyte (MB). About a billion bytes is a gigabyte (GB). A byte is made up of 8 bits. A bit is simply an on or an off signal which passes through the computers circuitry. Every piece of software can be broken down into a series of on or off signals or it's Binary Code.

Floppy Disk are still a common way of transporting information (such as bringing files home from work) but compact disks (CDs) and Digital Video Devices (DVDs) are becoming more popular. Most software is sold on a CD. Hard Disks are the most common storage device. Compact disks or CDs can store large amounts of information. One disk will store 650 Mb or about 70 or 80 minutes of music. One type is a CD-ROM which stand for Compact Disk Read Only Memory. Another type is a CD-RW which stands for Compact Disk - Read/Write. CD drives can copy information or burn information on to a blank CD. Common Read Only CD blanks can only be written to once though more expensive Read/Write CD's can be used over and over again. DVD disks can store over 4 gigabytes. DVD recorders allow you to store large files, such as movies, on a single disk. Hard disks store the majority of information on today's modern computer. My first hard disk stored 52 Mb, 12 more than my colleague's 40 Mb. Today the standard hard disk stores 30 GB or more (this number is constantly increasing). Like a floppy disk information can be stored and deleted as necessary. As files get larger the speed that hard disks can read and write become more important. Floppy disk or diskette comes in two basic sizes; 5.25 inch (almost obsolete) and 3.5 inch. Both have a low and high density versions though 3.5 inch high density disks are the most common.

Basic Computer Operations How Computers Work Input: Information and programs are entered into the computer through Input devices such as the keyboard, disks, or through other computers via network connections or modems connected to the Internet. The input device also retrieves information off disks. Output: Output Devices displays information on the screen(monitor) or the printer and sends information to other computers. They also display messages about what errors may have occurred and brings up message or dialog box asking for more information to be input. The output device also saves information on the disk for future use. Processing: The CPU or central processing unit is sometimes called the Control Unit and directs the operation of the input and output devices. The Coprocessor or the Arithmetic-Logic Unit does arithmetic and comparisons. The memory or RAM temporarily stores information (files and programs) while you are using or working on them. The BIOS or basic input/output system controls the dialogue between the various devices.

Storage Storage refers to holding information somewhere. RAM, Random Access Memory, is short-term memory. It is volatile memory because the memory is automatically "erased" when the power is turned off or interrupted. The RAM memory is located inside the computer case on the motherboard. A motherboard is not the keyboard. The keyboard is what you type with. A motherboard holds RAM memory, electronic circuits and other computer parts including the central processing unit. ROM, Read-Only-Memory, is not volatile meaning the memory is still there when power is interrupted or turned off. When the computer is turned back on again, ROM memory is still in storage on the internal hard disk.

Types Of Computers

There is a computer for every use. The kinds of computers are based on general performance levels.

Personal or micro Computers for personal use come in all shapes and sizes, from tiny PDAs (personal digital assistant) to hefty PC (personal computer) towers. More specialized models are announced each week - trip planners, expense account pads, language translators...

Descriptions of Personal Computers

When talking about PC computers, most people probably think of the desktop type, which are designed to sit on your desk. (Bet you figured that one out!) The tower and the smaller mini-tower style cases have become popular as people started needing more room for extra drives inside. Repairmen certainly appreciate the roominess inside for all the cables and circuit boards ... and their knuckles. A workstation is part of a computer network and generally would be expected to have more than a regular desktop PC of most everything, like memory, storage space, and speed. The market for the smallest PCs is expanding rapidly. Software is becoming available for the small types of PC like the palmtop (PPC) and handheld (HPC). This new software is based on new operating systems like Windows CE (for Consumer Electronics). You may find simplified versions of the major applications you use. One big advantage for the newer programs is the ability to link the small computers to your home or work computer and coordinate the data. So you can carry a tiny computer like a PalmPilot around to enter new phone numbers and appointments and those great ideas you just had. Then later you can move this information to your main computer.

With a Tablet PC you use an electronic stylus to write on the screen, just like with a pen and paper, only your words are in digital ink. The Tablet PC saves your work just like you wrote it (as a picture), or you can let the Hand Recognition (HR) software turn your chicken-scratches into regular text.

Main Frame

The main frame is the workhorse of the business

world. A main frame is the heart of a network of computers or terminals which allows hundreds of people to work at the same time on the same data. It requires a special environment - cold and dry.

Supercomputers

The supercomputer is the top of the heap in power and expense. These are used for jobs that take massive amounts of calculating, like weather forecasting, engineering design and testing, serious decryption, economic forecasting, etc.

The first Cray supercomputer was introduced in 1976

Minicomputer

The minicomputer has become less important since the PC has gotten so powerful on its own. In fact, the ordinary new PC is much more powerful than minicomputers used to be. Originally this size was developed to handle specific tasks, like engineering and CAD calculations, that tended to tie up the main frame.

Server
The term server actually refers to a computer's function rather than to a specific kind of computer. A server runs a network of computers. It handles the sharing of equipment like printers and the communication between computers on the network. For such tasks a computer would need to be somewhat more capable than a desktop computer. It would need: more power larger memory larger storage capacity high speed communications

Networking Fundamentals
Introduction to PC Networking Types of Networks Adding a Network Interface Card (NIC) Physical Components of a Network LAN Architectures Networking Protocols and the OSI Model TCP/IP Utilities Connecting to the Internet

Introduction to PC Networking

Defining a Computer Network

A computer network allows users to communicate with other users on the same network by transmitting data on the cables used to connect them. A computer network is defined as having two or more devices (such as workstations, printers, or servers) that are linked together for the purpose of sharing information, resources, or both.

Defining a Computer Network

A network consists of many overlapping systems, such as cabling, addressing schemes, or applications. The layers work together to transmit and receive data. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, was created to define these multiple layers.

File, Print, and Application Services networks offer file Computer

and print services. In networks, different computers take on specialized roles or functions. Once connected, one or more computers in the network can function as network file servers. The server is a repository for files that can be accessed and shared across the network by many users.

File, Print, and Application Services

All network operating systems offer file and print services. Sharing information, collaborating on projects, and providing access to input and output devices are common services of computer networks.

Mail Services
E-mail services work like the postal system, with one computer taking on the function of post office. The user e-mail account operates like a post office box, where mail is held for the user until it is picked up over the network by an e-mail client program running in the user system. The e-mail is sent from the client computer to the server, which acts as the post office. The server sends it to the e-mail address.

Directory and Name Services

To enable users and systems on the network to find the services they require, computer networks make use of directories and name services.

Directory and Name Services

Directory and name services make a network easier to use. After the initial setup of the directory or name service, this translation takes place transparently. In addition to their ease of use, they also make the network more flexible.

The Internet
The Internet is a worldwide public network of networks, interconnecting thousands of smaller networks to form one large web of communication. The Internet functions like a highway to facilitate exchange between geographically separated users, organizations, and branches of companies.

The Internet
The phrase information superhighway describes the benefit of the Internet to business and private communication. The Internet breaks down barriers of time and space, enabling the sharing of information around the globe almost instantaneously.

Network Administration
The ongoing task of network administration is to maintain and adapt the network to changing conditions. Network administrator responsibilities include:
Setting up new user accounts and services Monitoring network performance Repairing network failures

Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Transmission

Simplex transmission is a single one-way baseband transmission. It is also called unidirectional because the signal travels in only one direction. An example of simplex transmission is the signal sent from the cable TV station to the home television.

Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Transmission

This means that only one side can transmit at a time. Two-way radios, such as Citizens Band (CB) and police/emergency communications mobile radios, work with halfduplex transmissions.

Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex Transmission

Traffic can travel in both directions at the same time. A regular telephone conversation is an example of full-duplex communication. Both parties can talk at the same time, and the person talking on the other end can still be heard by the other party while they are talking.

Types of Networks

Overview
By using local-area network (LAN) and wide-area network (WAN) technologies, many computers are interconnected to provide services to their users. In providing services, networked computers take on different roles or functions in relation to each other. Some types of applications require computers to function as equal partners. Other types of applications distribute work so that one computer functions to serve a number of others in an unequal relationship.

Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, the networked computers act as equal partners, or peers, to each other.

As peers, each computer can take on the client function or the server function alternately.

Client/Server Networks
In a client/server network arrangement, network services are located in a dedicated computer whose only function is to respond to the requests of clients. The server contains the file, print, application, security, and other services in a central computer that is continuously available to respond to client requests.

Local-Area Networks (LANs)

A local-area network (LAN) can connect many computers in a relatively small geographical area such as a home, an office, or a campus. It allows users to access high bandwidth media like the Internet and allows users to share devices such as printers.

Local-Area Networks (LANs)

The general shape or layout of a LAN is called its topology. Topology defines the structure of the network. This includes the physical topology which is the actual layout of the wire or media, and the logical topology which is how the media is accessed by the hosts.

Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

A WAN, as the name implies, is designed to work over a larger area than a LAN. A WAN uses point-to-point or point to multipoint, serial communications lines. Point-to-point lines connect only two locations, one on each side of the line. Point-to-multipoint lines connect one location on one side of the line to multiple locations on the other side.

Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

The following are some of the more common WAN technologies:
Modems Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Digital subscriber line (DSL) Frame Relay Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) The T (US) and E (Europe) Carrier series (T1, E1, T3, E3, and so on) Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

Connections across WAN lines may be temporary or permanent. Telephone or dialup lines, might make a temporary connection to a remote network from a computer in a home or small office. In both temporary and permanent cases, computers that connect over wide area circuits must use a modem or channel service unit/data service unit (CSU/DSU) at each end of the connection.

Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

The public telephone system, sometimes referred to as plain old telephone service (POTS), is a circuit-switched communications network. When a telephone call is placed in this type of network, only one physical path is used between the telephones for the duration of that call. This pathway is maintained for the exclusive use of the call, until the connection is ended and the telephone is hung up.

Wide-Area Networks (WANs)

In a packet-switched network, each individual packet of data can take a different route and no dedicated pathway or circuit is established.

Adding a Network Interface Card (NIC)

What is a NIC?
A network interface card (NIC) is a device that plugs into a motherboard and provides ports for the network cable connections. It is the computer interface with the LAN. The NIC communicates with the network through serial connections and communicates with the computer through parallel connections.

Setting the IP Address

In a (TCP/IP)-based LAN, PCs use an IP address to identify each other. These addresses allow computers that are attached to the network to locate each other. IP addresses for hosts on a LAN can be assigned in two ways:
1. Manually assigned by the network administrator 2. Assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server

DHCP Servers
The most common and efficient way for computers on a large network to obtain an IP address is through a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server. DHCP is a software utility that runs on a computer and is designed to assign IP addresses to PCs. When the DHCP server receives a request from a host, it selects IP address information from a set of predefined addresses that are stored in its database.

Default Gateway
A computer located on one network segment that is trying to talk to another computer on a different segment sends the data through a default gateway. The default gateway is the near side interface of the router, the interface on the router to which the network segment or wire of the local computer is attached.

Domain Name System

Most hosts are identified on the Internet by friendly computer names known as domain names. The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to translate computer names such as cisco.com to their corresponding unique IP address. The DNS server keeps records that map computer (host) names and their corresponding IP address. These record types are all combined in the DNS table.

Physical Components of a Network

Network Topologies
The network topology defines the way in which computers, printers, and other devices are connected. A network topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well as the paths used by data transmissions. Commonly referred to as a linear bus, all the devices on a bus topology are connected by one single cable.

Network Topologies
The star topology is the most commonly used architecture in Ethernet LANs. When installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a bicycle wheel. Larger networks use the extended star topology. When used with network devices that filter frames or packets, like bridges, switches, and routers, this topology significantly reduces the traffic on the wires by sending packets only to the wires of the destination host.

Network Topologies
A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination address to the frame. The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination node, which takes the data out of the frame.
Single ring All the devices on the network share a single cable Dual ring The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions although only one ring is used at a time.

Network Topologies
The mesh topology connects all devices (nodes) to each other for redundancy and fault tolerance. It is used in WANs to interconnect LANs and for mission critical networks like those used by governments. Implementing the mesh topology is expensive and difficult.

Physical versus Logical Topology

Networks have both a physical and logical topology:
Physical topology the layout of the devices and media. Logical topology the paths that signals travel from one point on the network to another. The way in which data accesses media and transmits packets across it.

Networking Media
Networking media can be defined simply as the means by which signals (data) are sent from one computer to another (either by cable or wireless means). Coaxial cable is a copper-cored cable surrounded by a heavy shielding and is used to connect computers in a network. There are several types of coaxial cable, including thicknet, thinnet, RG-59 (standard cable for cable TV), and RG-6 (used in video distribution).

Networking Media
Twisted-pair is a type of cabling that is used for telephone communications and most modern Ethernet networks. A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs. There are two basic types, shielded twisted-pair (STP) and unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).

Networking Media
UTP comes in several categories that are based on the number of wires and number of twists in those wires. Category 3 is the wiring used primarily for telephone connections. Category 5 and Category 5e are currently the most

common Ethernet cables used.

Networking Media
Fiber-optic cable is a networking medium capable of conducting modulated light transmissions. Fiber-optic refers to cabling that has a core of strands of glass or plastic (instead of copper), through which light pulses carry signals. Signals that represent data are converted into beams of light.

Networking Media
If the cost of running cables is too high or computers need to be movable without being tethered to cables, wireless is an alternative method of connecting a LAN. Wireless networks use radio frequency (RF), laser, infrared (IR), and satellite/microwaves to carry signals from one computer to another without a permanent cable connection.

Common Networking Devices

A hub is a device that is used to extend an Ethernet wire to allow more devices to communicate with each other. Hubs are most commonly used in Ethernet 10BASE-T or 100BASE-T networks, although there are other network architectures that use them.

Common Networking Devices

Bridges connect network segments. The basic functionality of the bridge resides in its ability to make intelligent decisions about whether to pass signals on to the next segment of a network. A switch is a more sophisticated device than a bridge, although the basic function of the switch is deceptively simple. Ethernet switches are becoming popular connectivity solutions because they increase network performance.

Common Networking Devices

Routers are slower than bridges and switches, but make smart decisions on how to route (or send) packets received on one port to a network on another port. Routers contain tables of network addresses along with optimal destination routes to other networks.

Server Components
Server components are those components that are used exclusively with the network server. End users depend on the server to provide the services required. To keep the server running at it is optimal performance, a higher level of preventive maintenance must be maintained.

Networking Protocols and the OSI Model

OSI Model Overview

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is an industry standard framework that is used to divide the functions of networking into seven distinct layers. Each layer provides specific services to the layers above and below it in order for the network to work effectively.

OSI Model Overview

A message begins at the top application layer and moves down the OSI layers to the bottom physical layer. As the message descends, each successive OSI model layer adds a header to it. A header is layer-specific information that basically explains what functions the layer carried out. Conversely, at the receiving end, headers are striped from the message as it travels up the corresponding layers.

What is a Protocol?
Protocol is a controlled sequence of messages that is exchanged between two or more systems to accomplish a given task. Protocol specifications define this sequence together with the format or layout of the messages that are exchanged.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols has become the dominant standard for internetworking. TCP/IP represents a set of public standards that specify how packets of information are exchanged between computers over one or more networks.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

TCP/IP Utilities

Overview
TCP/IP is a complex collection of protocols. Most vendors implement the suite to include a variety of utilities for viewing configuration information and troubleshooting problems.

Connecting to the Internet

Synchronous and Asynchronous Serial lines

Synchronous serial transmission Data bits are sent together with a synchronizing clock pulse. Builtin timing mechanism coordinates the clocks of the sending and receiving devices. Asynchronous serial transmission Data bits are sent without a synchronizing clock pulse. Uses a start bit at the beginning of each message. When the receiving device gets the start bit, it can synchronize its internal clock with the sender clock.

Modems
The modem is an electronic device that is used for computer communications through telephone lines. It allows data transfer between one computer and another. There are four main types of modems:
Expansion cards PCMCIA External modems Built-in modems

Dial-Up Networking, Modem Standards, AT Commands

When computers use the public telephone system or network to communicate, it is called Dial-Up Networking (DUN). All modems require software to control the communication session. The set of commands that most modem software uses are known as the Hayescompatible command set. The Hayes command set is based on a group of instructions that always begins with a set of attention characters (AT).

ISPs and Internet Backbone Providers

Services of an Internet Service Provider (ISP) are required to surf the Internet. An ISP is a company that connects computers to the Internet and World Wide Web. The actual connection to the Internet is tiered. The ISP may link to a larger regional ISP, which in turn might connect to one of a number of nationwide computer centers.

ISPs and Internet Backbone Providers

The current U.S. Internet infrastructure consists of a commercial backbone and a high-speed service known as the Very High-Speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS). The vBNS connects five supercomputer networks across the country:
UUNET - a division of WorldCom Cable & Wireless USA Sprint AT&T BBN Planet

ISPs and Internet Backbone Providers

The ISP that cannot connect directly to the national backbone is charged a fee to connect to a regional provider that links to the national backbone through a Network Access Point (NAP). Not all the Internet traffic goes through NAPs. Some ISPs that are in the same geographic area make their own interconnections and peering agreements.

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is an always-on technology. This means there is no need to dial up each time to connect to the Internet. DSL comes in several varieties:
Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) High Data Rate DSL (HDSL) Symmetric DSL (SDSL) Very High Data Rate DSL (VDSL)

Cable Modems
A cable modem acts like a LAN interface by connecting a computer to the Internet. The cable modem connects a computer to the cable company network through the same coaxial cabling that feeds cable TV (CATV) signals to a television set.

ISDN
Another alternative to using analog telephones lines to establish a connection is ISDN. Speed is one advantage ISDN has over telephone line connections. ISDN uses a pair of 64Kbps digital lines to connect, which provides a total of 128Kbps throughput. A telephone line connects at a maximum speed of 56Kbps, and in some areas, doesnt even reach that.

Satellite
Satellite is an option for users in rural areas or with no other access to high speed Internet service. Satellite Internet does not require a phone line or cable. Two-way communication, for upload and download, is achieved with the use of a satellite dish. Download speed is up to 500 kbps while the upload speed is one-tenth of that of that.

Introduction to Internet

The Internet : Technology Background The Internet is an interconnected network of thousands of networks and millions of computers (sometimes called as host computers or just hosts) linking business , educational institutions , government agencies , and individuals together .The internet provides services such as e-mail, news-groups, shopping, research , instant messaging , music videos and news . No one organization controls the Internet or how it functions , nor it is owned by anybody , yet it has provided the infrastructure for a transformation in commerce, scientific research, and culture .The word internet is derived from the word internetwork or the connecting together of two or more computer networks.The World Wide Web is one of the internets most popular services, providing access to over one billion Web pages , which are documents created in a programming language called HTML and which can contain text , graphics , audio, video, and other objects, as well as hyperlinks that permit a user to jump from one page to another.

The Internet : Key Technology Concepts; Based in the definition , the internet means a network that uses the IP (Internet Protocol) addressing scheme, supports the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), and ,makes services available to users much like a telephone system makes voice and data services available to the public. Behind this formal definition are three extremely important concepts that are the basis for understanding the Internet : packet switching , the TCP/IP communications protocol , and client/server computing .Although the Internet has evolved and changed dramatically, these three concepts are at the core of how the Internet functions today and are the foundation for Internet.

Packet Switching : It is a method of slicing digital messages into parcels called packets sending the packets along different communication paths as they become available , and then reassembling the packets once they arrive at their destination .Prior to the development of packet switching , early computer networks used leased , dedicated telephone circuits to communicate with terminals and other computers.

In packet-switched networks , messages are first broken down into packets.Appended to each packet are digital codes that indicate a source address(the origination point) and the destination address, as well as sequencing information and error-control information for the packet.Rather than being sent directly to the destination , in a packet network , the packets travel from computer to computer until they reach their destination. The computers are called Routers . Routers are special purpose computers that interconnect thousands of different computer networks that make up the internet and route packets along to their ultimate destination as they travel.To ensure that packets take the best available path towards their destination, the routers use computer programs called routing algorithms.
Packet switching makes full use of almost all available communication lines and capacity.If some lines are disabled or too busy , the packets can be sent on any available line that eventually leads to the destination point.

TCP/IP :

TCP refers to the Transmission Control Protocol . IP refers to the Internet Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules for formatting , ordering , compressing , and error checking messages.It may also specify the speed of transmission and means by which devices on the network will indicate they have stopped sending and/or receiving messages. Protocols can be implemented in either hardware or software .TCP/IP is implemented in Web software called server software .It is the agreed upon protocol for transmitting data packets over the Web.TCP establishes connections among sending and receiving Web computers , handles the assembly of packets at the point of transmission , and their reassembly at the receiving end.

IP addresses :TCP handles the packetizing and routing of Internet messages . IP provides the Internets addressing scheme .Every computer connected to the Internet must be assigned an address otherwise it cannot send or receive TCP packets .When a user signs onto the Internet using a dial-up telephone modem, the computer is assigned a temporary address by the Internet service provider.
Internet addresses known as IP addresses , are 32-bit numbers that appear as a series of four separate numbers marked off by periods such as 201.61.186.227. Each of the four numbers can range from 0-255. This dotted quad addressing scheme contains up to 4 billion addresses of the computer ( 2 to the 32nd power).The leftmost number typically indicates the network address of the computer , while remaining numbers help to identify the specific computer within the group that is sending (or receiving) messages.

Domain Names and URLs : Most people cannot remember 32-bit numbers .IP addresses can be represented by a natural language convention called domain names.The domain name system (DNS) allows expressions to stand for numeric IP addresses. Uniform Resource Locators (URLs ) are addresses used by Web browsers to identify the location of content on the web, also use domain names as a part of the URL.A typical URL contains the protocol to be used when accessing the address, followed by its location. The protocol used is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol).A URL can have more than one paths.

Client/Server computing : It is a model of computing in which very powerful personal computers called Clients are connected together in a network together with one or more server computers.These clients are sufficiently powerful to accomplish complex tasks such as displaying rich graphics , storing large files, and processing graphics and sound files , all on a local desktop or hand held device. Servers are networked computers dedicated to common functions that their client machines on the network need. Such as storing files , software applications, utility programs such as Web connections , and printers.

Other Internet Protocols :

SMTP :Simple mail transfer protocol POP : Post Office Protocol For Sending Email

IMAP : Internet message access protocol

FTP : File Transfer Protocol for transferring files SSL : Secure Socket Layers for Security

Differences Between Internet , Intranet and Extranets

Internet: The Internet is the public, global network of networks which is based on the Internet Protocol (IP) and related standards. This technology was designed to provide a standard means of interconnecting networks so that any system could communicate with any other system. It operates as a confederated network of networks (an "internet"), and offers universal accessibility. The term often includes the World Wide Web, a powerful, standard facility for network-based publishing, as well as electronic mail, and the growing suite of other network applications that are based on Internet communications. Standardization and wide acceptance of the Internet has stimulated many billions of dollars of broadly applicable software and network development.

Intranet*: An intranet is a private application of the same internetworking technology, software, and applications within a private network, for use within an enterprise. It may be entirely disconnected from the public Internet, but is usually linked to it and protected from unauthorized access by security firewall systems. More loosely, the term may include extranets, as well.

Extranet*: An extranet is a use of Internet/intranet technology to serve an extended enterprise, including defined sets of customers or suppliers or other partners. It is typically behind a firewall, just as an intranet usually is, and closed to the public (a "closed user group"), but is open to the selected partners, unlike a pure intranet. More loosely, the term may apply to mixtures of open and closed networks.

Groupware: Groupware is a class of software that provides functions to aid workgroups. These include "the three C's" of communications, collaboration, and coordination. Emphasis is on computer-based augmentation of human communications and information sharing, and support of generic workgroup tasks like scheduling and routing of message-based workflow tasks.

Intergroupware: Intergroupware is just groupware applied with the flexibility to support multiple interacting groups, which may be open or closed, and which may share communications selectively, as appropriate (as in an extranet).

*Transcending the categories: Intranets and extranets are generally not very meaningful as categories of networks, as explained in Extranets -- When you think outside the box, the box goes away. What is more useful (but not yet common) is to think of them as classes of applications: intranet, extranet, and public Internet applications will all run on the same network infrastructure, but their content (program and data) resources will be administered for different levels of accessibility and security.