Measuring Instruments

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Classification of measuring instruments

Indicating instruments Makes use of a dial & pointer for showing magnitude of unknown quantity. Ex: Ammeter, Voltmeter etc., Recording instruments They give a continuous record of the given electrical quantity which is being measured over a specific period Ex: X-Y plotter Integrating instruments These instruments measure the total quantity of electricity delivered over period of time. Ex: Energy meter
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Requirements of an instrument
Indicating instruments consist of the following systems
Deflection system producing deflection torque Td Controlling system producing controlling torque Tc Damping system producing damping torque

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Deflection system
In indicating instrument the mechanical force proportional to the quantity to be measured is generated. This force or torque deflects the pointer The system which produces such a deflecting torque is called deflecting system and the torque is denoted as Td

The deflecting torque overcomes

Inertia of the moving system Controlling torque provided by controlling system Damping torque provided by damping system
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The deflection system uses one of the following effects produced by current or voltage, to produce deflection torque Magnetic effect: when a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform magnetic field, it experiences a force which causes to move it. Thermal effect: the current to be measured is passed through a small element which heats it to cause raise in temperature which is converted to an e.m.f. by a thermocouple attached to it.
Electrostatic effects: when two plates are charged there is a force exerted between them, which moves one of the plates

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 Induction effects: when a non-magnetic conducting disc is placed in a magnetic field produced by electromagnets which are excited by alternating currents, an e.m.f. is induced in it. Hall effect: If a bar of semiconducting material is placed in uniform magnetic field and if the bar carries current, then an e.m.f is produced between two edges of conductor. The magnitude of this e.m.f. depends on flux density of magnetic field, current passing through the conducting bar and hall effect coefficient which is constant for a given semiconductor

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Controlling system
This system should provide a force so that current or any other electrical quantity will produce deflection of the pointer proportional to its magnitude. The important function of this system are, It produces a force equal and opposite to the deflection force in order to make the deflection of the pointer at a definite magnitude. If this system is absent then the pointer will swing beyond its final steady position for the given magnitude.

It brings the moving system back to zero position when the force which causes the movement of the moving system is removed. It will never come back to its zero position in the absence of controlling system.
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Controlling system
Controlling torque is provided by spring control gravity control

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Gravity control

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Gravity control
This type of control consist of a small weight attached to the moving system whose position is adjustable. This weight produces a controlling torque due to gravity. This weight is called control weight At 0 position of pointer, the controlling torque is zero this is at position A of the weight. If system deflects the weight position also changes System deflects through an angle . Control weight acts at a distance l from the center Wsin component tries to restore the pointer back to the zero position Thus, controlling torque Tc = Wsin x l
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Tc = Ksin where K = Wl gravity constant Generally all meters are current sensing meters where, deflection torque, Td = Kt I where, Kt constant At equilibrium, Td = Tc Kt I = Ksin I sin

Thus, the deflection is proportional to current. i.e., quantity to be measured. Since it is a function of sin , scale is non-uniform
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Advantages:
Its performance is not time dependent It is simple and cheap Controlling torque can be varied by adjusting the position of the control weight Its performance is not temperature dependent

Disadvantages:
The scale is non-uniform causing problems to record accurate readings The system must be used in vertical position only and must be properly leveled It is not used for indicating instruments and portable instruments.
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Spring control
Two hair springs are attached to the moving system which exerts controlling torque. Requirements: Spring should be non-magnetic Spring should be free from mechanical stress Spring should have small resistance, sufficient cross section area It should have low resistance temperature co-efficient.

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Spring control
Springs are non-magnetic like, Silicon bronze, hard rolled silver or copper, platinum silver, German silver Flat spiral springs are used in almost all indicating instruments One end of spring is at spindle and other end to a arm at the front of the instrument Controlling torque is proportional to angular deflection
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 Controlling torque produced by spiral spring is

Thus the deflection is proportional to the current, hence scale of Powerpoint Templates Page 15 the instrument using spring control is uniform

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Damping system
Deflecting and controlling torque acts in opposite direction, so the pointer oscillate due to inertia, at equilibrium, so final reading can not be obtained, to bring the pointer to rest damping system is required. Types of damping critically damped under damped over damped

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Damping system
If the moving system reaches to its final position rapidly but smoothly without oscillations, the instrument is said to be critically damped. If the instrument oscillates about the final steady state position with a decreasing amplitude and takes sometime to come to rest then it is under damped

The instrument is said to be over damped if the moving system moves slowly to its final steady state position

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Damping torque
Methods to produce damping torque
Air

friction damping Fluid friction damping Eddy current damping

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Air friction damping

Light aluminium pistol is attached to the moving system. The piston moves in a fixed air chamber. It is closed to one end. When piston moves inside the chamber, air inside is compressed and pressure of air developed due to friction opposes the motion of pointer. There is also opposition to motion of moving system when piston moves out of the chamber Thus the overshoot gets reduced due to to and fro motion of the piston in the chamber, providing necessary damping torque settling pointer in steady state.
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Fluid friction damping

The friction between the disc and fluid is used for opposing motion. Damping force due to fluid is greater than that of air due to more viscosity The disc is also called vane. It consist of a vane attached to the spindle which is completely dipped in the oil. The frictional force b/w oil & vane is used to produce the damping torque, which opposes the oscillating behavior of the pointer

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fluid friction damping

Advantages: Due to more viscosity of fluid, more damping is provided The oil can also be used for insulation purposes Due to up thrust of oil, the load on the bearing is reduced, thus reducing the frictional errors

Disadvantages: This can be only used for the instruments which are in vertical position Due to oil leakage, the instruments can not be kept clean
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Eddy current damping

It is based on the faraday's law and Lenz's law When a current moves in a magnetic field cutting the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it and the direction of this e.m.f. is so as to oppose the cause producing it. An aluminium disc is connected to the spindle. The arrangement of disc is such that when it rotates, it cuts the magnetic flux lines of a permanent magnet

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Eddy current damping

When the pointer oscillates, aluminium disc rotates under the influence of magnetic field of damping magnet So disc cuts the flux which causes induced e.m.f. in the disc This disc is a closed path hence induced e.m.f circulates current through the disc called eddy current Direction of eddy current is so as oppose the cause producing it The cause is relative motion between disc and field Thus it produces an opposing torque to reduce the oscillations of pointer This brings pointer to rest quickly This is most effective and efficient method of damping.
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