Theories & Models

EDFN201B Instructional Design

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Instructional Design (n): The process by which instruction is improved through the analysis of learning needs and systematic development of learning materials.

Some more definitions:

Instructional Design simply means using a systematic process to understand a human performance problem, figuring out what to do about it and then doing something about it (McArdle, 1991). Instructional Design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, evaluation and maintenance of situations which facilitate the learning (Richey, 1986). Instructional Design is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet the needs (Briggs, 1977).
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Module 1 - Theories and Models

Objectives: Students will be able to distinguish between a theory and a model explain the difference between a theory and a model correctly classify each of a set of theories and models defend the classification of theories and models develop a simple lesson that demonstrates understanding of the various instructional design theories

Theories and Models

Theories What is a theory? A theory Provides a general explanation for observations made over time, Explains and predicts behavior, Can never be established beyond all doubt May be modified Seldom has to be thrown out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may be widely accepted for a long time and later disproved. (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

 "A theory is a set of interrelated principles and definitions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relationships among variables with the purpose of explaining natural phenomena." Kerlinger 1986 "Any set of hypotheses or principles linked by logical or mathematical arguments which is advanced to explain an area of empirical reality of type of phenomenon." Jary & Jary 1995

 A theory is not a collection of facts; it is a way of thinking about organisational organisations. Theories in educational orgnaisations provide a way of seeing and analysing teaching more accurately and deeply that one otherwise could.

Theory Development How do theories develop?

Atomic Theory
Since the beginning of history, people have theorized about the nature of matter. ancient Greeks matter was composed of fire, water, earth and air. the continuous theory
matter could be infinitely subdivided into smaller

and smaller pieces without change.

Orbital model and the quantum-mechanical model

matter made up of particles so small that they cannot be divided.

(Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

Comparing to Learning Theories

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Learning Theory
The behaviorist learning theory centered around that which was observable, not considering that there was anything occurring inside the mind. Behaviorism can be compared to Dalton's atom, which was simply a particle. the cognitive model of learning was born when there was realisation that the mind was not a black box. Soon, however, theorists realized that the "atom" is not stable, it is not so "cut and dried". Its in flux.
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The constructivist learning theory tells us that each organism is constantly in flux, and although the old models work to a certain degree, other factors most also be considered. The quantum theory builds upon the previous atomic theories. Constructivism builds upon behaviorism and cognitivism in the sense that it accepts multiple perspectives and maintains that learning is a personal interpretation of the world.
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 Cognitive approaches have a place in constructivism also, since constructivism recognises the concept of schema and building upon prior knowledge and experience. The greatest difference is that of evaluation. In behaviorism and cognitivism, evaluation is based on meeting specific objectives, whereas in constructivism, evaluation is much more subjective.
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Types of theories Learning Theories Instructional Theories Motivational Theories Communication Theories General Systems Theories
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Learning theories:
Learning theory is intended to describe how learning takes place. There are 2 main schools of thought behavioural and cognitive. In general, behavioural learning theories provide the theoretical basis for systematic, or directed, instructional designs, while cognitive learning theories provide the basis for constructivist instructional designs.

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Instructional Theories:
Instructional theory is a discipline that focuses on how to structure material for promoting the education of human beings, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, instructional theory is typically divided into two categories: the cognitive and behaviorist schools of thought. Instructional theory was spawned off the 1956 work of Benjamin Bloom, a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his Taxonomy of Education Objectives one of the first modern codifications of the learning process.

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Motivational Theories:
Motivation theory is concerned with the processes that describe why and how human behavior is activated and directed. It is regarded as one of the most important areas of study in the field of organizational behavior. There are two different categories of motivation theories - content theories, and process theories.
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Content Theories of Motivation Also known as Needs Theory, the content theory of motivation mainly focuses on the internal factors that energize and direct human behavior.

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Process Theories of Motivation Process theories of motivation provide an opportunity to understand thought processes that influence behavior.
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Communication Theories: Communication Theory attempts to document types of communication, and to optimize communications for the benefit of all.
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General Systems Theories

Systems theory is a transdisciplinary approach that abstracts and considers a system as a set of independent and interacting parts. The main goal is to study general principles of system functioning to be applied to all types of systems in all fields of research.

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Instructional Design Theory

Learning theory is the study of how people learn. Instructional Design Theory is the study of how to best design instruction so that learning will take place. Instructional design theory, then, is drawn from learning theory. Learning theories have significant bearing on instructional design, as there is a logical development from learning to instruction. Instructional design optimizes learning outcomes while learning theories are the backbone of any instructional design. Instructional design is the articulation or the manifestation of the learning theories, and its main aim is to optimize learning by using the known theories of learning.

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What is a model? A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something we cannot see or experience directly. (Dorin, Demmin & Gabel, 1990)

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 Models may be very simple or very complex. Each model reflects only a limited aspect of the total No single model, or combination of models, reveals the truth. the concept of model is used not so much for the purpose of obtaining explanations as for predicting phenomena

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Types of models

Physical models Analogue models Conceptual models

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Physical Model
A physical model is a smaller or larger physical copy of an object. The object being modelled may be small (for example, an atom) or large (for example, the Solar System).

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Analogue Model
A model based on similarities between the system under study and another system or process.

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Conceptual Model
"a set of abstract and general concepts and propositions that integrate those concepts into a meaningful configuration (Lipitt, 1973; Nye & Berardo, 1981)" (as cited in Fawcett, J., 1995, p.2).

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Developing models
Key features in common with the development of any model are:
simplifying assumptions must be made; boundary conditions or initial conditions must be identified; the range of applicability of the model should be understood.
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Instructional Design Models

An instructional design model gives structure and meaning to an I.D. problem, enabling the would-be designer to negotiate the design task with a semblance of conscious understanding. Models help us to visualize the problem, to break it down into discrete, manageable units.
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ID Models
Dales Cone of Experience ADDIE Dick & Carey Morrison, Ross and Kemp ASSURE

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Dales Cone of Experience

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ADDIE Model
Analysis Design Development Implementation Evaluation

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Dick & Carey Model

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Dick & Carey/Systems Approach Model

Identify Instructional Goal(s) Conduct Instructional Analysis Analyze Learners and Contexts Write Performance Objectives Develop Assessment Instruments Develop Instructional Strategy Develop and Select Instructional Materials Design and Conduct Formative Evaluation of Instruction Revise Instruction Design and Conduct Summative Evaluation With this model, components are executed iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly.

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Morrison, Ross & Kemp

Identify instructional problems, and specify goals for designing an instructional program. Examine learner characteristics that should receive attention during planning. Identify subject content, and analyze task components related to stated goals and purposes. State instructional objectives for the learner. Sequence content within each instructional unit for logical learning. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives. Plan the instructional message and delivery. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

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The oval shape of this model (see Figure 1) is constructed to convey the idea that the design and development process is an iterative cycle that needs constant planning, design, development and assessment to ensure effective instruction.

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ASSURE Model
identifies six major steps in an instructional planning process. The Assure Model is:
A procedural guide for planning and delivering instruction that integrates technology and media into the teaching process. A systematic approach to writing lesson plans. A plan used to help teachers organize instructional procedures. A plan used to help teachers do an authentic assessment of student learning. A model that can be used by all presenters.
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ASSURE model
Analyse Learners State Objectives Select, modify and design Methods, Media and Materials Utilise Methods, Media and Materials Require learner participation Evaluate and revise

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References
Intelligent Leadership Studies in Educational Leadership, 2007, Volume 6, 67-98, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-6022-9_5 Contemporary Learning Theories, Instructional Design and Leadership Larry Sackney and Brenda Mergel lDorin, H., Demmin, P., Gabel, D. (1990). Chemistry: The study of matter. (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.
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