TGchapter6 Concepts

THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Third Edition
Chapter 6 Urban Transportation

CONCEPTS
Copyright 1999-2012, Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, 11549 USA. Jean-Paul.Rodrigue@hofstra.edu You may use the figures within for educational purposes only. No modification or redistribution permitted.
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Copyright 1998-2012, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use.
Transportation and Urban Form

CONCEPT 1
Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum

Dichotomy
Rural
Urban
Continuum
Urban EMR Rural Villages Towns Large City Secondary cities
EMR: Extended Metropolitan Region

Demographic Transition
Birth Rate Death Rate Total Population
Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Phase IV
Population, Selected Units, 1880-2009

1,400,000
Western Europe
1,200,000
United States China India Japan
1,000,000
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
Global Population (1950-2010) and Growth Scenarios, 2010-2050

Billions
12.0
10.0
8.0
Base
6.0
High Low Medium
4.0
2.0
0.0
World Urban Population, 1950-2005 with Projections to 2020 (in billions)

4.5
4
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0
World Developed countries Developing countries
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
Worlds Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2010 (in millions)

0
Tokyo Delhi So Paulo Mumbai (Bombay) Mexico City New York-Newark Shanghai Kolkata (Calcutta) Dhaka Karachi Buenos Aires Los Angeles Beijing Rio de Janeiro Manila Osaka-Kobe Al-Qahirah (Cairo) Lagos Moskva (Moscow) Istanbul 13.12 13.07 12.76 12.39 11.95 14.65 16.58 15.55 20.26 20.04 19.46 19.43 22.16
10
15
20
25
30
35
36.67
40
11.63 11.34 11.00

10.58 10.55 10.52
Metropolitan Areas of More than 10 Million Inhabitants, 2010

Paris Istanbul Moskva (Moscow) Lagos Al-Qahirah (Cairo) Osaka-Kobe Manila Rio de Janeiro Beijing Los Angeles Buenos Aires Karachi Dhaka Kolkata (Calcutta) Shanghai New York Mexico City Mumbai (Bombay) So Paulo Delhi Tokyo
10.49 10.52 10.55 10.58 11.00 11.34 11.63 11.95 12.39 12.76 13.07 13.12 14.65 15.55 16.58 19.43 19.46 20.04 20.26 22.16 36.67
1950 1975 2010
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Cities of more than 8 million, 1950-2000

1950 1970 1990 Developed countries New York London New York London Tokyo Los Angeles Paris Tokyo New York Los Angeles Moscow Osaka Paris Developing countries None Shanghai Mexico City Buenos Aires Beijing Sao Paulo Mexico City Sao Paulo Shanghai Calcutta Buenos Aires Bombay Seoul Beijing Rio de Janeiro Tianjin Jakarta Cairo Delhi Manila
Mexico City Sao Paulo Shanghai Calcutta Bombay Beijing Jakarta Delhi Buenos Aires Lagos Tianjin Seoul Rio de Janeiro Dhaka Cairo Manila Karachi Bangkok Istanbul Teheran Bangalore Lima
2000
Tokyo New York Los Angeles Moscow Osaka Paris
Worlds Largest Cities
World at Night
Percentage of Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030

Asia Latin America North America Europe Africa
1950 1975 2030
World
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
2000
80
90
Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030 (in millions)

Asia
Latin America
North America
Europe
2030 2000
Africa 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
1975 1950
3000
Cities and Connectivity

Function Trade city
Industrial city Mobile city Network city
Main Mode Water transport (maritime and fluvial).

Railway Highways Transit Telecommunications
Nexus Waterfront (Heavy industries, Intermodal terminals).

Central stations. Rail terminals and railyards. Shopping districts. Distribution clusters. Financial / management districts. High technology clusters.
Transportation, Urban Form and Spatial Structure
Spatial imprint
Infrastructures Modes Transportation Users

Spatial interaction
Urban Form
Urban Spatial Structure
Nodes, Linkages and Urban Form
Manufacturing District
Port District
CBD
Built area Accessibility node Economic node
Road / transit linkage Rail linkage
Maritime linkage Air linkage
Types of Urban Spatial Structures
Centralized A C Decentralized Clustered Dispersed B D
One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes
Streetcar line Freeway
Walking 10 km Streetcar Cycling Automobile Automobile with freeways
Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City
A
Core activities
B
Peripheral activities Central area Central activities
C
Major transport axis
Possible Urban Movement Patterns
Organized
Primary flow Secondary flow
Disorganized Monocentric Polycentric
Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in North American and European Cities
II
I II III IV III North America
I - Walking-horsecar era (1800-1890) II - Streetcar era (1890-1920)
IV
Europe
III - Automobile era (1920-1945) IV - Highway era (1945-) Streetcar line Highway
Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in European Cities (to be redesigned)
Built up area prior to introduction of mechanical transport Development consequent on steam railways Development consequent on tramways Development consequent on motor buses Development consequent on private car
Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and Europe
North America
r(NA) Density Density
Europe
r(E)
IV I II III
II
III
IV
Distance
Distance
I - Prior to mechanized transport II - Early forms of mechanized transport (tramways) III - Diffusion of motor vehicles (buses, automobiles) IV - Suburbanization
Population Density by Distance from City Center, Selected Cities

350 300 250
Beijing (1990) Paris (1990) Bangkok (1988) Jakarta (1990) Barcelona (1990) New York (1990) Los Angeles (1990)
Persons per hectare
200
150
100 50 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Distance form city center (km)

Population Density in People per Hectare in a Sample of Large Cities, 1990s

Atlanta Houston Portland Chicago San Francisco Washington Los Angeles Cape Town Stokholm Berlin Toulouse New York Ljubijana Jabotabek Johannesburg Marseille Curitiba Brasilia Bangkok London Budapest Riga Cracow Buenos Aires Warsaw Prague Paris Sofia Mexico City Rio de Janeiro Tunis Singapore St. Petersburg Jakarta Ahmedabad Abijan Beijing Tehran Yerevan Bercelona Addis Ababa Moscow Bangalore Hyberadad Tianjin Shanghai Seoul Guangzhou Hong Kong Mumbai
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
American Population Living in Metropolitan Areas and Their Central Cities and Suburbs, 1910-2000 (%)
90
80
70 60
50
50
40 30 20 10 0 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950
7.1 24.8 9.2 13.8 15.3 23.3
30.9
37.6
44.8
46.2
Suburbs Central Cities
30.8
32.5
32.8
32.3
31.4
21.2
30
31.3
30.3
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Density and Car Use in North American Cities, 1991

40 35 Urban density (pers./ha) 30 25 20 New York 15 10 Chicago Montreal
Toronto
Los Angeles
Phoenix
Houston
5 5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
11,000
12,000
13,000
14,000
15,000
Car use per capita (km)

Average Journey to Work Travel Time, 1990

40 35
30
25 20 15
Minutes
10
5 0
United States
Western Europe
Japan
Other Asia
Australia
Service Attributes of Urban Transportation Modes

Speed (km/hr)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Private car on freeway
Private car on conventional road

Light rapid transport system Urban railway Bus using reserved lane on highways Bus on conventional road network
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000
Maximum capacity Average speed
50,000
60,000
Capacity (pers/hr)
Urban Form, Hempstead, Long Island, New York

Road (11.9%) Parking (21.8%) Building (5.3%) Other (61.0%)
Urban Modes and Distance Decay
Number of trips
Cycling and walking
Motorized
Distance
Rings of Mobility
C B
Density Pedestrian
Road and parking
Cycling Transit Terminal
Performance by Urban Transport Mode

Performance Index
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
1/3 full ligh rail/metro Full light rail/metro 1/3 full bus Full bus Car with 1 person Fully occupied car Cyclist Pedestrian
0 10 20 30 Space required per person (in sqr m) Speed (km/hr) Performance index 40 50 60
The Rationale of a Ring Road
Spatial Structure
Avoiding the congested central area
Accessibility
5
Before
10 10 5
10
10
5
City Center
A to B = 30
Secondary Center
10
5 10 10 10 10
After
10 5 10
Structuring Suburban development
5 10
A to B = 20
Type I - Completely Motorized Network
Main Road
Highway
Activity center
Type II - Weak Center
Main Road
Highway
Transit line
Activity center
Type III - Strong Center
Main Road
Highway
Transit line
Activity center
Type IV - Traffic Limitation
Main Road
Highway
Transit line
Activity center
Four Main Types of Urban Spatial Structures

I
II
Main Road
Highway
Activity center
Transit line
III
IV
Street Network Types
Conventional Grid Curvilinear Loop Pattern & Conventional Pattern (c 1900) Beginning of Cul-de-Sacs (1930-1950) Cul-de-Sac Pattern (since 1950) Arterial road
Local street
Scale and Urban Spatial Structure

Scale Components of the spatial structure Streets Basic services Residences
Community
Main roads Employment zones

District
City
Highway and transit systems Major transport terminals (ports and airports)
Suburban Development along an Highway Interchange
Retail Office Industrial Residential Highway Railway
Core
Transportation and Land Use

CONCEPT 2
Transportation, Activity Systems and Land Use

Spatial imprint
Infrastructures Modes Transportation Users

Spatial interaction
Urban Form
Labor Customers Suppliers
Activity
Spatial location
Urban Spatial Structure
Land Use Pattern

Types of Urban Expansion
Existing build up Infilling Extension Linear development Sprawl Large-scale projects
Formal and Functional Land Use

Road Parking Building Other Road Parking Residential Commercial Institutional Industrial Other
Relationships between Land Uses
Land Use
Relationships
A
G C
C B
A
F G D
Passengers Freight
D
Transport Infrastructure and Activity Location
Transportation / Land Use Interactions
Transportation
Activity Patterns
Accessibility
Land Use
The Transport / Land Use System
Infrastructures (Supply)
Friction of Space (Impendence)
Spatial Accumulation (Demand)
Transport System
Accessibility Traffic assignment models Transport capacity
Spatial Interactions
Spatial interaction models Distance decay parameters Modal split
Land Use
Economic base theory Location theory Traffic generation and attraction models
Von Thunen's Regional Land Use Model

Isolated State Modified Conditions
Central city Navigable river Market gardening and milk production Firewood and lumber production Crop farming without fallow Crop framing, fallow and pasture Three-field system Livestock farming
Inference of Von Thunens Model to Continental United States
Forest Dairy Forest Beef Cattle and Sheep Wheat Corn and Soybeans Vegetables Beef Cattle and Sheep Specialty Crops Wheat Dairy Vegetables Corn and Soybeans
Cotton and Tobacco
Cotton and Tobacco
Assumptions 1. New York City the only market 2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability 3. No terrain or climatic variation
Assumptions 1. New York City the only market 2. Crops ranked by rent paying ability 3. No terrain variation 4. Climatic variation considered
Specialty Crops
Burgess Urban Land Use Model
Chicago, 1920s
Model
I - Loop (downtown)
II - Factory zone III - Zone of transition
Ghetto LOOP Two Plan Area Black Belt
IV - Working class zone
V - Residential zone
VI - Commuter zone
Residential District Bungalow Section
Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Models

Sector 2 3 4 3 3 2 3 3 1 4 5 7 Nuclei
1 3
5 6
9
1 CBD 2 Wholesale and light manufacturing 3 Low-class residential 4 Middle-class residential 5 High-class residential
6 Heavy manufacturing 7 Sub business district 8 Residential suburb 9 Industrial suburb
Hybrid Land Use Model
Center Industrial / Manufacturing Commercial
Residential Transport axis
The Hybrid Land Use Model: Transportation and the Formation of Urban Landscapes
Pre Industrial (Concentric) Streetcar (Sector)Bicycle (Concentric)
Centers CBD Walking Horsecar Railways
Automobile (Concentric)Highway (Concentric and Nodal)
Suburb Towns Roads
Main roads
Highways
Suburb
New suburb
Land Economics
Price
Supply Towards downtown
Demand
P2 P1 P3 Towards the periphery
Q2
Q1
Q3
Quantity of Land
Land Rent Theory and Rent Curve
Rent
1/S
S = D2
D
S = 3.14 S = 75.40 S = 235.62 1 km
1/S 5 km 10 km
Land Rent and Land Use

1 Bid rent curves
Rent B- Industry/ commercial
2 Overlay of bid rent curves
A- Retailing
City limits
Distance
C - Apartments D - Single houses
3- Land use
Contemporary Modifications of the Land Rent Theory
Rent A Conventional CBD B Commercial / industry C High to medium density residential D Sub center E Suburbia
Cellular Automata Land Use Dynamics
t=0
t=1
t=2
t=3
Urban land use Non urban land use
Protected land use Highway
Basic Urban Dynamics
Transport Investment Terminals Infrastructures Modes
Accessibility Passengers Freight Information
Economic Performance Economic growth Agglomeration / clustering Productivity Employment Investment
Feedback
Dynamics of Urban Change
Network Freight Transport
Very Slow
Very Fast
Employment
Population
Fast
Workplaces Land Use Housing
Slow
Very Slow
Pace of Change
Commuting
Urban Mobility
CONCEPT 3
Transit Technology and Urban Development, Late 19th Early 20th Century
City Center Urban Development New Urban Development Commercial Strips Rail Station 30 Minutes Walk Intercity Railroad Streetcar Line
Suitability of Travel Modes

Mode Walking Bicycle Taxi Fixed Route Transit Paratransit Auto driver Ridesharing Vehicle Rentals Motorcycle Telecommuting Limitations Requires physical ability. Limited distance and carrying capacity. Difficult or unsafe in some areas. Requires bicycle and physical ability. Limited distance and carrying capacity. Relatively high cost per mile. Destinations and times limited. High cost and limited service. Requires driving ability and automobile. High fixed costs. Requires cooperative automobile driver. Consumes drivers time for deviations. Requires convenient and affordable vehicle rentals services. Requires riding ability and motorcycle. Average fixed costs. Requires IT equipment and skills. Most Appropriate Uses Short trips by physically able people.
Short to medium length trips by physically able people on suitable routes. Infrequent trips over short and medium distance. Short to medium distance trips along busy corridors. Travel for disabled people. Travel by people who can drive and afford an automobile.
Trips that the driver would take anyway (commuting). Occasional use by drivers who do not own an automobile. Travel by people who can ride and afford a motorcycle. Alternative to some types of trips.
Largest Subway Systems in the World by Annual Ridership, c2010 (in millions)
Sao Paulo Saint Petersburg Osaka Cairo London Hong Kong Mexico City Paris New York Guangzhou Shanghai Beijing Moscow Seoul Tokyo
0 500
754 777 837 837 1,170 1,378 1,487 1,506 1,640 1,640 2,101 2,180 2,389 2,429 3,161
1,000
1,500 2,000 Millions
2,500
3,000
3,500
Worlds Main Subway Systems, c2010
Estimated Ridership of the Worlds Largest Public Transit Systems, 1998

New York Manila Paris London Sao Paulo Buenos Aires Beijing Mumbai Seoul Hong Kong Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto Shanghai Moscow Mexico City Tokyo-Yokohama 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,000
Estimated Annual Journeys (billions)

Mean Travel Time to Work for Selected American Cities (in minutes), 1980-1990
National Total
Boston Detroit Houston 1990 1980
Chicago
Washington San Francisco New York
Los Angeles 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Components of an Urban Transit System
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X
Metro station Transfer
Transit rail station
Bus stop Express stop

X
Shuttle stop
Paratransit Taxi service boundary
Private Vehicle and Public Transport Market Share, 1990/91

100%
American Cities
90%
European Cities
Private Vehicle Market Share
80%
70%
60%
Asian Cities
50%
40%
30% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Public Transport Market Share

Public Transport Market Share in the United States, 1900-2005

140 100%
120
Estimated Public Transport Passenger Miles Public Transport Market Share
90% 80% 70% 60% 50%
100
Billions
80
60
40% 30% 20%
40
20 10% 0 1900 0% 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Trips by Public Transport in the United States, 19032010

100% 25,000
90%
80% 70% 20,000
Market Share
60% 50%
15,000
40%
30% 20% 10% 0%
10,000
5,000
Bus Light Rail Public Transport Market Share
Heavy Rail Trolley Bus
Millions of Trips
Transit and Urban Form
Adaptive Cities
Adaptive Transit
Hybrids
Transit and Urban Land Use Impacts
High
Transit Use
Average Low
Accessibility
Convergence
Integration
Accessibility along a Transit Line
30 min.
5 min.
a 25 min.
b 20 b 10
c 15 c 15
d 10 d 20
Stops
5 e 25
a 5 min.
Types of Urban Movements

Movement Type
Pendular Professional Personal Touristic Distribution
Pattern
Structured Varied Structured Seasonal Structured
Dominant Time
Morning and afternoon Workdays Evening Day Nighttime
Destination
Localized (employment) Localized Varied with some foci Highly localized Localized
Income and Urban Transport Demand
Business
Trips / Capita / Day
Social Shopping Work
Income
Main Purposes of Urban Trips
3% 20%
Work
Shopping School Business (Work)
49%
15%
Business (Personnal) Home
5% 3% 5%
Other
Typical Urban Day Trips by Modes, Origins and Destinations
Shopping mall
8:30 PM Drive alone
1:30 AM Delivery 2:30 AM Return 7:00 PM Drive alone 5:30 PM Drive alone
10:45 PM Return
10:30 PM Delivery
Restaurant
1:30 PM Walk 12:30 PM Walk
7:00 AM Garbage pickup
Home
8:00 AM Carpool 8:15 AM Drive alone
Work
Passengers Freight
School (drop off child)
10:05 AM Parcel Pickup
10:00 AM Parcel Drop off
Urban Travel by Purpose and by Time of the Day in a North American Metropolis
25
Shopping
Social / Recreation
20
Work Total trips
Percentage
15
10
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Time of Departure for Home to Work Trips, United States

25 1985 2001 20 2005
15
10
12:00 am to 2:59 am
3:00 am to 5:59 am
6:00 am to 6:59 am
7:00 am to 7:29 am
7:30 am to 7:59 am
8:00 am to 8:29 am
8:30 am to 8:59 am
9:00 am to 9:59 am
10:00 am to 3:59 pm
4:00 pm to 11:59 pm
Typical Car and Truck Trips Distribution by Time of the Day

14 12 10 8 6 4 Trucks Cars
2
0
1AM 3AM 5AM 7AM 9AM 11AM 1PM 3PM 5PM 7PM 9PM 11PM
International Journey to Work Travel Times by Population Density, 1990

250 200 150 100 50
32.6
30.9
29.1
24.1
22.4 Under 2,500
26.8
0
Over 20,000 10,000-19,999 5,000-9,999 2,500-4,999 Average
Average Travel to Work Time (Minutes)
Annual Hours Spent Commuting
Home-to-Work Trips Modes, United States, 1985-2009

100% 90% 80%
5.0 14.0 5.0 12.0 5.0 11.0 4.6 10.0 4.6 12.2 4.4 9.1 5.0 10.0
70%
60% 50% 40%
72.0 76.0 77.0 77.5 75.7 79.3 76.1
30% 20% 10% 0%
Worked at home Other means Walks only Bicycle or motorcycle Mass transit Carpool Drives self
1985
1989
1993
1997
2000
2005
2009
Modal Split for Global Cities, 1995

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Chinese Cities American Cities Australian Cities West European Cities High Income Asian Low Income Asian Cities Cities Private Motor Vehicle Transit
Walking / Cycling
Modal Split for Some Cities, 1990

100%
80%
Cycling Walking Transit 40% Private Car
60%
20%
0%
New York
Houston
London
Shanghai
Modal Split for Some Asian Cities, 1990s

100%
80%
60%
Walking & Cycling Transit
40%
Private Car
20%
0%
Bangkok Kuala Lumpur Jakarta Tokyo Manila Singapore Hong Kong
Mode Share for Commuting, New York, 1980-2000

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1980 1990 2000 Other non walk
Taxi
Bus Subway Automobile
Metropolitan Job Decentralization, United States, 1993-1996
18% 25% Cities losing jobs Cities gaining jobs slower than suburbs Cities gaining jobs faster than suburbs
57%
Accessibility to Employment in Urban Areas
Mobile population
Mobility deprived population
Transit
Employment center
Car
Annual VMT by Age Group and Gender, United States, 1995

20,000 18,000 16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 Males
Females
0 16-19 20-34 35-54 55-65 65+
Destination for Work-Related Movements in the United States
(33.8%)
Central City
(16.7%) (27.4%) (6.4%)
Suburban Area
Percentage of Workers Using Public Transportation, Selected Urban Areas, 2000

Washington San Francisco Philadelphia
New York Los Angeles Dallas-Fort Worth Chicago 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Central City Metropolitan Area
Source of Revenue for Some American Transit Systems, 2008

100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50%
40%
30% 20% 10%
Revenue from subsidies
Revenue from fares
0%
Urban Transport Problems

CONCEPT 4
Percentage of Households by Number of Vehicles, 1977-2005

100%
90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1977 1983 1990 1995 1999 2005 3 or more vehicles 2 vehicles 1 vehicle 0 vehicles
Land Area Consumed by the Car in Selected Countries, 1999

0 Sweden United Kingdom Germany 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 % of total land area used by the car Area per capita (sqr. meters)
France
Japan Mexico Canada
United States
0.0% 0.5% 1.0% 1.5% 2.0% 2.5% 3.0% 3.5%
Central Business District Monthly Parking Rate, 2011

Boston Calgary Birmingham Milan New York Stockholm Copenhagen Brisbane Vienna Amsterdam Melbourne Oslo Sydney Geneva Perth Rome Tokyo Hong Kong Zurich London
$438.00 $486.34 $496.44 $517.61 $541.00 $546.41 $567.13 $568.89 $575.12 $586.62 $598.39 $612.15 $695.31 $704.70 $717.43 $718.90 $744.00 $744.72 $822.15 $1,083.59
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Geographical Paradoxes behind Urban Transport Problems
Congestion Impacts
Monofunctional
Specialization North American Suburb Agglomeration European City
Automobile dependency Road Imprint Japanese City
Factors Contributing to the Growth of Driving in the United States
17%
13% Increase in population Increase in trip length Increase in trips
17% 35%
Decrease in vehicle occupancy

Switch to driving
18%
Levels of Automobile Dependency
Car only
High Automobile Dependency

75%
Medium
50%
Low
Transportation alternatives
Space / Time Relationships and Modal Choice
High
Density
Low High
Worst case
TIME
Low
Best case
Concentrated
SPACE
Dispersed
Congestion
The Vicious Circle of Congestion
Congestion
The number of movements increases The average length of movements increases Public pressures to increase capacity
New capacity
Urban sprawl is favored Movements are easier
100 Most Congested Highway Intersections in the United States, 2006
Average Number of Hours of Delay per Peak Commuter per Year, Selected American Cities, 19822003
120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Dallas / Fort Worth New York San Francisco Washington Chicago Los Angeles Phoenix Atlanta 1982 1990
1995
2000 2003
Miami
Average
Average Daily Commuting Time, European Countries, 2002 (in minutes)

Italy Spain Portugal France
Austria
EU Average Denmark Belgium Sweden Ireland Luxembourg Greece Finland Netherlands Germany UK
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Urban Density and Driving Speed, Selected Global Cities

80,000 70,000
Density (people per square mile)
60,000 50,000 40,000 30,000
20,000
10,000 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Average road speed (miles per hour)

Traffic Conditions in Major American Cities, 1982-2003

100% 90% 80% 70% 60%
Extreme Severe
50%
40% 30% 20% 10% 0%
Heavy
Moderate
Uncongested
1982
1990
1997
2003
Parking Accumulation by Land Use by Time of the Day

100 90 80 Percent of Peak Parking 70 60 50
40
30 20 10 0
Residential Office Retail Restaurant Cinema 6AM 7AM 8AM 9AM 10AM 11AM 12AM 1PM 2PM 3PM 4PM 5PM 6PM 7PM 8PM 9PM 10PM
Recurring Congestion
Traffic Capacity Congestion
Unused Capacity
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Major Sources of Recurring and Non-Recurring Congestion

Congestion in the United States (hours by Cause) Germany (hours by Cause)
5% 15% 5%
Traffic Incidents
4%
34%
Work Zones
40% 30%
Traffic Incidents
Work Zones Other
Weather
10%
Poor Signal Timing

25%
Other
32%
Average Hourly Traffic on George Washington Bridge, 2002

20,000 18,000 Eastbound Westbound Total
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0
Home-to-Work Commute Profile, United States, 19832003

35 30 25 20 15 10 5
Average Length of Work Trips (miles) Average Work Trips Travel Time (minutes) Average Speed (Miles per Hour)
0
1983 1990 1995 2003
City Size and Roadway Congestion Index, United States, 1982-2009

1.80 1.60
Roadway Congestion Index (RCI)
1.40
1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20
0.00
100
1,000 Urban Population (1,000s)
10,000
Roadway Congestion Index, Selected Cities, United States, 1982-2007

1.6
1.4
1.2
1982
1990
1994 2000 2007
0.8
0.6
Transit Use and Car Ownership in Selected Cities, 1993

100 90 % of work trips by transit 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
Moscow
Bombay
Curitiba
Rio Cairo
Lagos Manila
Delhi Stockholm Copenhagen
Paris
R = 0.519
Toronto
Atlanta Melbourne
Seattle
10
0 0 100 200 300 400
500
600
700
Cars per 1,000 people

Source of Revenue for Bus Operations, Europe, 2002

UK Spain
Germany
Sweden Greece France Denmark Netherlands Italy Belgium Austria
0%
20%
Subsidies
40%
60%
Commercial revenue
80%
100%
Fare Recovery Ratio of Selected Public Transit Systems, United States, 2010
Charlotte Area Transit System Bi-State Development Agency (St. Louis) Denver Regional Transportation District Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (Boston) Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority New Jersey Transit Corporation Chicago Transit Authority MTA New York City Transit San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit District 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%
Challenges of Urban Transit
Main transit line High density transit city Low density suburb Decentralization Connectivity Travel patterns Fixity serviced by transit Travel patterns not serviced by transit

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THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

Chapter 6 Urban Transportation

THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS

Transportation and Urban Form

Perspectives about the Urban Spatial Structure: From Dichotomy to Continuum

EMR: Extended Metropolitan Region

Birth Rate Death Rate Total Population

Population, Selected Units, 1880-2009

United States China India Japan

Global Population (1950-2010) and Growth Scenarios, 2010-2050

High Low Medium

World Urban Population, 1950-2005 with Projections to 2020 (in billions)

World Developed countries Developing countries

Worlds Largest Metropolitan Areas, 2010 (in millions)

11.63 11.34 11.00

Metropolitan Areas of More than 10 Million Inhabitants, 2010

1950 1975 2010

Cities of more than 8 million, 1950-2000

Tokyo New York Los Angeles Moscow Osaka Paris

Worlds Largest Cities

Percentage of Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030

Urban Population by Region, 1950-2030 (in millions)

Africa 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500

Cities and Connectivity

Main Mode Water transport (maritime and fluvial).

Nexus Waterfront (Heavy industries, Intermodal terminals).

Transportation, Urban Form and Spatial Structure

Infrastructures Modes Transportation Users

Urban Spatial Structure

Nodes, Linkages and Urban Form

Built area Accessibility node Economic node

Road / transit linkage Rail linkage

Maritime linkage Air linkage

Types of Urban Spatial Structures

Centralized A C Decentralized Clustered Dispersed B D

One Hour Commuting According to Different Urban Transportation Modes

Streetcar line Freeway

Walking 10 km Streetcar Cycling Automobile Automobile with freeways

Evolution of the Spatial Structure of a City

Possible Urban Movement Patterns

Disorganized Monocentric Polycentric

Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form in European Cities (to be redesigned)

Evolution of Urban Densities in North America and Europe

Population Density by Distance from City Center, Selected Cities

Persons per hectare

Distance form city center (km)

Population Density in People per Hectare in a Sample of Large Cities, 1990s

Suburbs Central Cities

Density and Car Use in North American Cities, 1991

Car use per capita (km)

Average Journey to Work Travel Time, 1990

Service Attributes of Urban Transportation Modes

Private car on freeway

Private car on conventional road

Maximum capacity Average speed

Urban Form, Hempstead, Long Island, New York

Urban Modes and Distance Decay

Cycling and walking

Road and parking

Cycling Transit Terminal

Performance by Urban Transport Mode

The Rationale of a Ring Road

Structuring Suburban development