Adhy Kurniawan
1987-1990 SMA 3 Semarang 1990-1991 Fac. Of Economy, Diponegoro University, Semarang S1(1991-1996) Civil Engineering Dept. Gadjah Mada Univ. S3(1998-2003) Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL), Swiss Post Doct (nov.2005-sept.2006) Kyoto University, Japan
Homework
Your chance to practice using the concepts presented in class Teamwork vs. Individual work?
References
All of literature concerning: Res Met Marczyk, DeMatteo, Festinger. 2005, Essentials of Research Design and Methodology, John Wiley and Sons. Day and Gastel, 2006, How to write and Publish a Scientific Report, Greenwood Press Metodologi Riset, Etc.
List of students
Alif Ardy Saputra, Geodesi UGM Anik FR, TL, ITB Ashri Uswatun, TFisika,UGM Ayi Fajarwati, TL, ITB Corry Agustina, Perenc Wil, TA, UGM Dwi Astuti, TKimia, UGM Elva Nur , TF, UGM Erika Kezia, TL, ITB Fitri Wijayanti, Fisika, UNS I Nyoman Kusuma, TF, UGM Ihsan Hasan, T Industri, UII, Ihwan Ghazali, T Industri, UAD Iin Lestari, TL, ITB M Sony Abertiawan, TL, ITB Maria Auliana, T Sipil, UGM Norma Pradipta, TArsitektur, UGM Satrya Alrizki, TGeofisik, ITB Tatag Lindu Bhakti, TFisika, UGM
Contents
The aims of research, the research topic, title and research problem, literature review, research design: population and sampling types, types of quantitative research designs, validity of conclusions, data-collecting methods and measuring instruments in quantitative research, qualitative research designs, data analysis and interpretation of results, report writing and the research proposal, ethical consideration on research.
In addition, scientific knowledge is not based on the opinions, feelings, or intuition of the scientist. Instead, scientific knowledge is based on objective data that were reliably obtained in the context of a carefully designed research study. In short, scientific knowledge is based on the accumulation of empirical evidence (Kazdin, 2003a)
Kazdin, A. E. (2003a). Methodology: What it is and why it is so important. In A. E. Kazdin ( Ed.), Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research (3rd ed., pp. 522). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
The defining characteristic of scientific research is the scientific method . First described by the English philosopher and scientist Roger Bacon in the 13th century, it is still generally agreed that the scientific method is
Although some disagreement exists regarding the exact characteristics of the scientific method, most agree that it is characterized by the following elements:
Empirical approach Observations Questions Hypotheses Experiments Analyses Conclusions Replication
Empirical Approach
The scientific method is firmly based on the empirical approach. The empirical approach is an evidence-based approach that relies on direct observation and experimentation in the acquisition of new knowledge (see Kazdin, 2003a). In the empirical approach, scientific decisions are made based on the data derived from direct observation and experimentation. Contrast this approach to decision making with the way that most nonscientific decisions are made in our daily lives. For example, we have all made decisions based on feelings, hunches, or gut instinct. Additionally, we may often reach conclusions or make decisions that are not necessarily based on data, but rather on opinions, speculation, and a hope for the best. The empirical approach, with its emphasis on direct, systematic, and careful observation, is best thought of as the guiding principle behind all research conducted in accordance with the scientific method.
Observations
An important component in any scientific investigation is observation. In this sense, observation refers to two distinct conceptsbeing aware of the world around us and making careful measurements. Observations of the world around us often give rise to the questions that are addressed through scientific research. For example, the Newtonian observation that apples fall from trees stimulated much research into the effects of gravity. Therefore, a keen eye to your
surroundings can often provide you with many ideas for research studies.
Questions
After getting a research idea, perhaps from making observations of the world around us, the next step in the research process involves translating that research idea into an answerable question. The term answerable is particularly important in this respect, and it should not be overlooked. It would obviously be a frustrating and ultimately unrewarding endeavor to attempt to answer an unanswerable research question through scientific investigation. It is therefore important to formulate a research question that can be answered through available scientific methods and procedures.
Hypotheses
The next step in the scientific method is coming up with a hypothesis, which is simply an educatedand testableguess about the answer to your research question. A hypothesis is often described as an attempt by the researcher to explain the phenomenon of interest. Hypotheses can take various forms, depending on the question being asked and the type of study being conducted. A key feature of all hypotheses is that each must make a prediction. Remember that hypotheses are the researchers attempt to explain the phenomenon being studied, and that explanation should involve a prediction about the variables being studied. These predictions are then tested by gathering and analyzing data, and the hypotheses can either be supported or refuted on the basis of the data.
Two types of hypotheses with which you should be familiar are the null hypothesis and the alternate (or experimental) hypothesis. The null hypothesis always predicts that there will be no differences between the groups being studied. By contrast, the alternate hypothesis predicts that there will be a difference between the groups. For example, the null hypothesis would predict that the exercise group and the no-exercise group will not differ significantly on levels of cholesterol. The alternate hypothesis would predict that the two groups will differ significantly on cholesterol levels. Homework: Individual Please try to find one example. About the null
Experiments
After articulating the hypothesis, the next step involves actually conducting the experiment (or research study). For example, if the study involves investigating the effects of exercise on levels of cholesterol, the researcher would design and conduct a study that would attempt to address that question. As previously mentioned, a key aspect of conducting a research study is measuring the phenomenon of interest in an accurate and reliable manner. In this example, the researcher would collect data on the cholesterol levels of the study participants by using an accurate and reliable measurement device. Then, the researcher would compare the cholesterol levels of the two groups to see if exercise had any effects.
Analyses
After conducting the study and gathering the data, the next step involves analyzing the data, which generally calls for the use of statistical techniques. The type of statistical techniques used by a researcher depends on the design of the study, the type of data being gathered, and the questions being asked. It is important to be aware of the role of statistics in conducting a research study. In short, statistics help researchers minimize the likelihood of reaching an erroneous conclusion about the relationship between the variables being studied.
Conclusions
After analyzing the data and determining whether to reject the null hypothesis, the researcher is now in a position to draw some conclusions about the results of the study. For example, if the researcher rejected the null hypothesis, the researcher can conclude that the phenomenon being studied had an effect a statistically significant effect, to be more precise.
If the researcher rejects the null hypothesis in our exercise-cholesterol example, the researcher is concluding that exercise had an effect on levels of cholesterol.
It is important that researchers make only those conclusions that can be supported by the data analyses. Going beyond the data is a cardinal sin that researchers must be careful to avoid.
Replication
One of the most important elements of the scientific method is replication. Replication essentially means conducting the same research study a second time with another group of participants to see whether the same results are obtained. The same researcher may attempt to replicate previously obtained results, or perhaps other researchers may undertake that task.
Replication illustrates an important point about scientific researchnamely, that researchers should avoid drawing broad conclusions based on the results of a single research study because it is always possible that the results of that particular study were an aberration. In other words, it is possible that the results of the research study were obtained by chance or error and, therefore, that the results may not accurately represent the actual state of things. However, if the results of a research study are obtained a second time (i.e., replicated), the likelihood that the original studys findings were obtained by chance or error is greatly reduced.
Answer:
description, prediction, and understanding/explaining
Correlational research:
In correlational research, the goal is to determine whether two or more variables are related. (By the way, variables is a term with which you should be familiar. A variable is anything that can take on different values, such as weight, time, and height.) For example, a researcher may be interested in determining whether age is related to weight. In this example, a researcher may discover that age is indeed related to weight because as age increases, weight also increases. If a correlation between two variables is strong enough, knowing about one variable allows a researcher to make a prediction about the other variable.
It is important to point out, however, that a correlation or relationshipbetween two things does not necessarily mean that one thing caused the other.To draw a causeand-effect conclusion, researchers must use experimental research. .
Experimental research:
In its simplest form, experimental research involves comparing two groups on one outcome measure to test some hypothesis regarding causation. For example, if a researcher is interested in the effects of a new medication on headaches, the researcher would randomly divide a group of people with headaches into two groups. One of the groups, the experimental group, would receive the new medication being tested. The other group, the control group, would receive a placebo medication (i.e., a medication containing a harmless substance, such as sugar, that has no physiological effects).
Experimental research:
Besides receiving the different medications, the groups would be treated exactly the same so that the research could isolate the effects of the medications. After receiving the medications, both groups would be compared to see whether people in the experimental group had fewer headaches than people in the control group. Assuming this study was properly designed (and properly designed studies will be discussed in detail in later chapters), if people in the experimental group had fewer headaches than people in the control group, the researcher could conclude that the new medication reduces headaches.
Task
Compose your own brief research proposal. Try to determine your research topic for MST final project Format:
1. In MS Word 2. In Power point
2. To convince the reader, especially supervisors and reviewers, of the value of your proposed research.
Is this project worth the time and money? Will it make a difference to the world?
5. To request support from individuals and agencies who provide supervision, oversight or funding for the research project.
What kinds of support does the project need? Are all participants properly protected?
Secondary Sources
Newspapers Book chapters Television/Radio Magazines Wikepedia
Empirical Research
All empirical research is inherently flawed
Limitations
1. Sampling
Generalizability Representative Measurement Error Social Desirability Grasping the Whole Problem
2. Measurement
3. Problem Identification
Literature Reviews
Well-written analytical narrative that brings a reader up-to-date on what is known on a given topic, but also provide fresh insights that advance knowledge
Resolve conflicts between studies Identify new ways to interpret research results Creating a path for future research
Anecdotal Reports
A description of an event or experience that happened to be noticed
No control No comparison
current as possible.
Studies should not duplicate research that has been already done. Even in cases when research is duplicated (replicated is the appropriate term), one is responsible for documenting the need for replication, e.g., need to explore the same methodology with a different group or population, or need to change methodology with the same group.
Rely on journal articles published in national journals Prioritize your search: first look for refereed journal articles, then, non-refereed articles, then books, then conference papers, dissertations and theses and then papers posted to websites
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Sort these abstracts into groups of related topics or areas which can then become the different sections of your review
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Does your draft follow the logic or idea that is presented in your intro and title? Avoid overusing direct quotations, especially long ones Check style manual for correct use of citations
(Doe, 2005); Doe (2005); (Doe & Smith, 2005); Doe and Smith (2005); (Black, 2005; Brown, 2006; Yellow, 2007)
Yes - Do NOT use contractions; No Dont use contractions Coined terms should be set off by quotes
Class Exercise
Now youre ready to formulate your own research question(s) Sample questions: Is there a relationship between participation in an Elluminate chat session and course grade? How do 5th grade students experience the anticipation of standardized testing?
Research Questions
From Topic to Research Question A good research topic asks a clear, concise question. Asking a research question helps you keep a tight focus on your topic. Tweaking Your Research Question A good research topic is broad enough to allow you to find plenty of material, but narrow enough to fit within the size and time constraints of your paper.
If your topic is either too broad or too narrow, consider adding or eliminating the following elements:
Time Period, century, decade, future, Population Type, age, gender, nationality, species, Geographic Location country, state, region, Point of View economic, social, cultural, biological
Assignment 2 Components
(see syllabus for details)
Title Page Nature of the Problem Background and Significance of the Problem Literature Review Research Questions References
Topic ideas
Online chat reference
Types of questions
Subject? Type? # of turnaways*
Difference in discourse
In-person vs. chat
Partnership studies
Similar libraries with same software
Topic Ideas
E-book usage Usability studies of
Online tutorial(s) My Library portals
Analysis of library web sites or library instruction sites or pathfinders by best practices Student learning outcomes in LI programs
Types of methodologies
QuaLitative Measures
Descriptive Numbers not the primary focus Interpretive, ethnographic, naturalistic
QuaNtitative Measures
N for numbers Statistical Quantifiable
QuaLitative measures
Content Analysis
Analyzed course syllabi of library use through discipline and level (Rambler) Studied online tutorials, applying best practices recommendations (Tancheva)
QuaLitative Measures
Discourse Analysis
Analyzed student responses in writing and discussions to a short film & compared findings to parallel study with LIS grad Ss (Vandergrift) Discussed how participants experience & use the library (Von Seggern & Young) Studied why students use the Internet and how much time they use it (Wilson)
Focus Groups
QuaLitative Measures
Interviews
Studied 25 HS students web use for research assignments (Lorenzen) Looked at what type of information first year students need and how they go about acquiring it (Seamans) Observed students as they conducted online research & noted their activities (Dunn) Retrieval of discarded cheat sheets to analyze academic misconduct (Pullen et. al.)
Observation (obtrusive)
Observation (Unobtrusive)
QuaLitative Measures
Think Aloud Protocols
Studied how users navigate a library web site (Cockrell & Jayne)
Usability testing
Examined students mental models of online tutorials (Veldof & Beavers)
QuaNtitative measures
CompareThings Count Things Survey People About Things
QuaNtitative measures
Comparison studies
Experimental and control groups Instructional methodologies (Colaric; Cudiner & Harmon) Program assessment using before/after analysis of research papers(Emmons & Martin)
QuaNtitative measures
Pre & Post Tests (Van Scoyoc) Measures & Scales
Bosticks Library Anxiety Scale (Onwuegbuzie & Jiao; Van Scoyoc) Procrastination Assessment Scale (Onwuegbuzie & Jiao)
QuaNtitative measures
Numeric Studies
Citation AnalysisBibliometrics (Dellavalle) Webometrics (Bar-Ilian)
Common Pitfalls
Problems with population
Sampling?
Representativeness? Self-selection?
Research Problem #1
A study assessing student learning outcomes in 2 broad categories (concepts, techniques) by examining student research journals in 1 section of an elective information literacy course in fall semester.
Research Problem #4
A 2004 article on a library use and services satisfaction study that used as its measurement tool a survey given to every nth person entering the library building on 40 randomly selected days throughout the school year.
Research Problem #5
An outcomes assessment research project of a 5 year old IL program in which all incoming freshmen must participate. Total student population on campus is divided between 32% freshmen to senior (or 4 year) and 68% transfer students.
Common Pitfalls
Problems with operationalization
Defining of what is measured
Research Problem #2
An experimental study that proposes a fund allocation formula for academic library collections based on the following:
average of overall book price + average of overall serial prices * degree level (10 for undergraduate to 30 for doctorate) / the number of students enrolled in degree program as majors + the total number of faculty in the department * three * total number of students in program. (OAB + OAS) * D/(Sn +(Fn*3))*Sn
N.B. Not a standard formula
Research Problem #3 A newspaper article you read just the other day stated that in a recently published study done at a major U.S. university, researchers found that domestic violence affects 1 in every 4 women.
Research Problem #4 A 2004 article on a library use and services satisfaction study that used as its measurement tool a survey given to every nth person entering the library building on 40 randomly selected days throughout the school year.
Research Problem #5
Over a one year period, researchers studied the occurrence of turn-aways in a virtual reference service and noted that the significantly high occurrence of turn-aways indicates increased need for virtual reference service.
Common Pitfalls
Problems with generalizability
False conclusions Transformations
Research Problem #1
A study assessing student learning outcomes in 2 broad categories (concepts, techniques) by examining student research journals in 1 section of an elective information literacy course in fall semester.
Research Problem #7 A survey of faculty found that the majority of those interviewed interacted most with librarians at the reference desk. The researchers concluded that most faculty view librarians in a servile role.
Every statistic is a way of summarizing complex information into relatively simple numbers. (Best) How did the researchers arrive at these numbers? Who produced the numbers and what is their bias? How can key terms be defined & in how many different ways?
Getting Started
Read to learn; read to analyze
About research methodology Studies on similar topics Interesting studies Non-library studies
Getting Started
Finding a topic neednt be traumatic
Work projects Research studies
P&T overhaul Library GO Bond Proposal Project Library workshop trends User repair strategies
Getting Started
Data collection involves agreement & consent Forge partnerships At some point you will need to leave the comfort zone of reading and literature gathering and
Questions?
Research methodology
Quantitative Methods Qualitative procedures
Quantitative Methods
A definition
A survey or experiment that provides as output a quantitative or numeric description of some fraction of the population, called the sample.
Sample selection
The instrumentation
The instrument (tool)
Existing New
Rating scale
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Pilot Administration
E.g. Number of years of academic study E.g. How many years of study in a University
As an undergraduate? As a postgraduate?
Data analysis
Non-response
Subjects
Selection
Conveniently Random (RCT)
Group assignment
Random Matched. E.g. Size
Ability, Age
Variables
Dependent Independent
Materials
Quasi-experimental
Control group, but not randomly assigned
Test themes across the data set, where are they common, under what circumstances are they found, not found. This sets the parameters on the interpretation and generalisation of data Get more than one person to analyse the data independently then together
Demonstrate trustworthiness in data analysis
Examples
Biographical continuity Nursing routines as a method of managing a transient workforce
Qualitative research
Interpretative research Process orientated Researcher(s) are the primary data collection instrument Descriptive research Outputs are an inductive process
References
MSc project web pages
http://www.comp.glam.ac.uk/gis/start.asp?whatfile=gis/gis rc/msc-proj.htm
Creswell, J. W. (1994) Research design : qualitative and quantitative approaches. - Thousand Oaks, Calif.; London : Sage Publications, ISBN 0803952546