Chapter 39

INSECTS

Insects have lived for more than 300 million years, since long before the rise and fall of the dinosaurs. The story of insects is one of great biological success through evolution and adaptation. Today, insects account for about three-fourths of all species on Earth.

THE INSECT WORLD

CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS

Many adaptations that make insects successful they share with arthropods Segmented body Jointed appendages Exoskeleton Belong to class Insecta in subphylum Uniramia also includes millipedes and centipedes

Body of insect divided into three tagmata Head Thorax Abdomen

Also have mandibles and one pair of antennae on head Antennae and other appendages are unbranched

Thorax has 3 pairs of jointed legs Maybe 1 or 2 pairs of wings

Abdomen has 9-11 segments In adults, abdomens have no wings or legs

Most insects are small Smallest is the fairyfly which is 0.2 mm long

Some insects are larger African Goliath beetle is longer than 10 cm Atlas moth has wingspan of more than 25 cm

Study of insects is called entemology Entomologists classify insects into more than 30 orders based on characteristics Ex. Mouthparts, number of wings, type of development

ORDER THYSANURA
bristled tail 2,400 species Metamorphosis none Characteristics chewing mouthparts Feed on paste in wallpaper and starch in book bindings and labels

Bristletail Silverfish

Firebrat

ORDER ANOPLURA
unarmed tail 2,400 species Metamorphosis incomplete Characteristics: wingless; piercing, sucking mouthparts Parasitize humans, other mammals and birds; transmit diseases

Sucking Lice

ORDER DERMAPTERA
skin wing 1,000 species Metamorphosis incomplete Two pairs of wings, biting mouthparts, pincerlike appendages at tip of abdomen Damage plants, transmit diseases

Earwig

ORDER EPHEMEROPTERA
for-a-day wing 1,500 species Incomplete metamorphosis Membranous wings (triangular forewings), nonfunctioning mouthparts in adults Nymphs are food for freshwater fish

Mayfly

ORDER HEMIPTERA
half wing 55,000 species Incomplete metamorphosis Two pairs of wings during life, piercing sucking mouthparts Damage crops and garden plants

True bugs

ORDER HOMOPTERA
like wing 20,000 species Incomplete metamorphosis Membranous wings held like roof over body (some species wingless), piercing sucking mouthparts Damage crops and garden plants

Aphids

Mealy bugs

Cicadas

ORDER ISOPTERA
equal wing 2,000 species Incomplete metamorphosis Sometimes 2 pairs of membranous wings, chewing mouthparts Decompose wood in buildings, recycle resources in forests

Termites

ORDER ODONATA
toothed 5,000 species Incomplete metamorphosis Two pairs of long, narrow membranous wings; chewing mouthparts Destroy harmful insects, nymphs are food for freshwater fish

Dragonfly

Damselfly

ORDER ORTHOPTERA
straight wing 30,000 species Incomplete metamorphosis Two pairs of straight wings; chewing mouthparts Damage crops, garden plants, and stored food

Grasshopper

Cricket

Katydid

Cockroach

ORDER COLEOPTERA
sheathed wing 500,000 species Complete metamorphosis Hard forewings, membranous hind wings, chewing mouthparts Destroy crops, prey on other insects

Ladybugs Weevils Beetles

ORDER DIPTERA
two wings 80,000 species Complete metamorphosis 1 pair of wings, sucking piercing or lapping mouthparts Carry diseases, destroy crops, pollinate flowers, act as decomposers

Mosquito

Fly

Gnat

ORDER HYMENOPTERA
membrane wing 90,000 species Complete metamorphosis 2 pairs of membranous wings, biting sucking lapping mouthparts, many have constriction between thorax and abdomen, some social Pollinate flowers, make honey, destroy harmful insects

Bees

Wasps

Ants

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA
scaled wing 140,000 species Complete metamorphosis Large, scaled wings, chewing mouthparts in larvae, siphoning mouthparts in adults Pollinate flowers, larvae and pupae make silk, larvae damage clothing and crops

Butterflies

Moths

ORDER NEUROPTERA
nerve wing 4,600 species Complete metamorphosis 2 pairs of membranous wings, sucking or chewing mouthparts in larvae, chewing mouthparts in adults Destroy harmful insects, larvae are food

Dobsonflies

Lacewings

Ant lions

ORDER SIPHONAPTERA
tubed, wingless 1,200 species Complete metamorphosis Wingless as adults, chewing mouthparts in larvae, sucking mouthparts as adults Parasitize birds and mammals, carry diseases

Flea

THE SUCCESS OF INSECTS

Live almost everywhere in the world except in deep ocean More than 700,000 species identified 3 times as many as exist in all other animal groups combined Scientists estimate may be 10 million species that exist

One of the most important factors responsible for success of insects is ability to fly Escape from predators Disperse quickly in new environments Also small so reduces competition Have short lifespans and produce large number of eggs Natural selection happens quickly

INSECTS AND PEOPLE

Some compete with humans for food by eating crops Others spread diseases by biting humans or animals Ex. Female Anopheles mosquitoes carry bacterium Plasmodium causes malaria Flies can transmit Salmonella typhi which causes typhoid fever

BENEFITS OF INSECTS
Serve

as food sources for many species for cross-pollination of plants

Essential

Make

commercially valuable products honey, wax, silk, shellac

Termites feed on wood in houses and buildings Feed on decaying wood so recycle nutrients needed to maintain healthy forest

THE GRASSHOPPER

Used to demonstrate details of insect structure and function Not all details shared by all insects Insects so diverse there is no typical example

EXTERNAL STRUCTURE
Body clearly shows 3 insect tagmata Head has mouthparts Also has pair of unbranched antennae Simple and compound eyes

Thorax divided into 3 parts Prothorax attaches to head, has first pair of walking legs Mesothorax has forewings and second pair of walking legs Metathorax attaches to abdomen, has hindwings and large jumping legs

Springlike mechanism inside jumping legs stores mechanical energy when legs are flexed Release of mechanism causes legs to extend suddenly

Flexible joint at base of each leg gives legs great freedom of movement Spines and hooks on legs let grasshopper grasp branches and blades of grass

Leathery forewings protect membranous hindwings when grasshopper isnt flying Forewings help grasshopper glide Hindwings actually propel it through air

Wings powered by muscles attached to inside of exoskeleton in thorax Insect wings develop as outgrowths from epidermal cells that make exoskeleton Unlike wings of birds and bats, wings of insects did not evolve from legs

Segments in abdomen are made of upper and lower plates joined by tough but flexible exoskeleton

Same flexible sheet also connects segments together Exoskeleton covered by waxy cuticle secreted by epidermis Exoskeleton supports body, cuticle slows water loss Both adaptations for terrestrial life

FEEDING AND DIGESTION

Grasshoppers feed on plants Mouthparts modified for cutting and chewing leaves and blades of grass

Labrum and labium are mouthparts that function like upper and lower lips Hold food in position so sharp-edged mandibles can tear off edible pieces Behind mandibles are maxillae which also help hold and cut food

Mouthparts of other insect specialized for types of food they eat Mosquito long, thin mouthparts that fit to make needle-like tube Females use to pierce skin and suck blood

Food that enters mouth is moistened by saliva from salivary glands Moistened food then passes through esophagus into crop for temporary storage Passes into gizzard where sharp plates shred it

Shredded mass enters midgut There food is bathed in enzymes secreted by gastric ceca pockets that branch from digestive tract Nutrients absorbed into coelom through wall of midgut Undigested matter goes to posterior section of digestive tract (hindgut) and leaves through anus

CIRCULATION

Open circulation Hemolymph flows through aorta Heart (in abdomen and thorax) pumps hemolymph forward through aorta into coelom nearest head

Hemolymph filters through coelom toward abdomen and reenters heart through small pores along its length

RESPIRATION

Insects do not use circulatory system to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide Exchange gases with environment by pumping air deep into body through network of air tubes called tracheae

Air enters tracheae through spiracles on sides of thorax and abdomen Ends of tracheae branch near cells of body and filled with fluid Oxygen diffuses into cells from fluid and CO2 diffuses out Air pumped in and out through movement of abdomen and wings

EXCRETION

Have Malpighian tubules excretory organs that collect water and cellular wastes from hemolymph Attached to digestive tract at junction between midgut and hindgut

In insects that live in dry environments, the Malphigian tubes return most water to hemolymph Produces very concentrated mixture of wastes that are deposited in hindgut and leaves body with feces Adaptation to life on land

NEURAL CONTROL

Grasshoppers CNS consists of brain and ventral nerve cord with ganglia in each body segment Nerves extend from brain to antennae, eyes, other organs of head

Antennae have sensory structures that respond to touch and smell 3 simple eyes arranged in row above base of antennae Eyes just sense light intensity

2 compound eyes have hundreds of individual light detectors and lenses Allow grasshopper to see in several directions at once Can detect movement and form images

Other nerves go from ganglia to muscles and sensory structures in thorax and abdomen Sound-sensing organ called tympanum Large, oval membrane that covers air-filled cavity on each side of first abdominal segment

Sounds cause tympanum to vibrate Vibrations detected by nerves cells lining the cavity Tympana also found in other insect species that use sound in communication

Sensory hairs are spread over body At base of each hair is nerve cell that is activated if hair is touched or moved by vibration

REPRODUCTION

Grasshoppers have separate sexes During mating, male deposits sperm into females seminal receptacle Stored until eggs released by ovaries

After release, eggs fertilized internally Last segment of females abdomen forms organ called ovipositor Used to dig hole in soil where she lays fertilized eggs

DEVELOPMENT
After hatching from egg, young insect must go through several molts before reaching adult size and sexual maturity Only silverfish and few others dont change body form Metamorphosis change in form as developing into adults

INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
Nymph hatches from egg and gradually develops to adult Nymph immature form of insect that looks like adult but is smaller, wings and reproductive organs undeveloped Nymph molts several times Final molt transforms lymph into adult Ex. Grasshoppers, mayflies, dragonflies, termites

COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS
Insect goes through 2 stages of developmen t between egg and adult Each stage looks very different

Wormlike larva (caterpillar) hatches from egg Has 3 pairs of jointed legs on thorax Several pairs of nonjointed legs on abdomen Eats almost constantly causes damage to plants

Monarch larva molts several times as it grows Last larval stage stripes of black, white, yellow along body

Continues to feed Soon find sheltered spot and hangs upside down Body becomes shorter and thicker

Exoskeleton splits down dorsal side and falls off Reveals green pupa stage of development in which an insect changes from larva to adult

Pupa of butterflies enclosed in protective case called chrysalis Most pupae have case called cocoon Inside pupa, larval tissues break down Groups of cells called imaginal disks develop into wings and other tissues in adult

When complete, pupa molts into sexually mature, winged butterfly

IMPORTANCE OF METAMORPHOSIS
Larval and adult stages have different functions Live in different habitats Eat different foods Solarvae and adults dont compete for food Helps survive in harsh environments Cocoons buried in soil during winter

DEFENSE
Some adaptations provide passive defense Common defense: camouflage

Other defense adaptations are more aggressive Ex. Poisonous stingers of female bees and wasps

Insects that defend themselves by being dangerous or poisonous often have bright color patterns Warning coloration Sometimes several dangerous species have similar patterns

Mullerian (myoo-LER-ee-uhn) mimicry when member of one dangerous species mimics warning coloration of another Black and yellow stripes of bees and wasps Some flies have same coloration but are harmless Batesian (BAYTZ-ee-uhn) mimicry

Section 2

INSECT BEHAVIOR

One success of insects is ability to have complex behaviors Made possible by jointed appendages, complicated sense organs, relatively complex brains Capable of interpreting sensory information to escape from predators, find food/mates, and communicate

COMMUNICATION
One of most common forms of communication is pheromones Pheromone chemical released by animal that affects behavior or development of other members of some species through smell or taste Play major role in behavior patterns of many insects

Ex. Trail of ants Following a trail of pheromones left by ants in front of them Usually made by ants that found food As more and more ants find the trail, pheromones becomes stronger Bees also use pheromones to identify hive and call other bees to attack something threatening their hive

Some insects secrete pheromones to attract mate Female silkworm moth can attract males from several km away by secreting less than 0.01g of pheromone Sensory hairs on antennae

Many insects communicate through sound Male crickets communicate by rubbing scraper on one forewing against vein on other forewing Attract females and warn other males off Each cricket species call differs from other species

Insects can also communicate by generating flashes of light Ex. Fireflies males flash to attract females Different species have different patterns of flashing

BEEHAVIOR ;-)
Some insects live in complex colonies In the colonies, some individuals gather food, some protect, some reproduce These are social insects Division of labor creates interdependence and need for communcation

Behavior of honeybees not taught or learned Completely determined by genetics Programmed instructions stored in genes This is innate behavior

Honeybee colony has 3 types of individuals Worker bees sterile females that make up most of hive population (could be up to 80,000) Perform all duties of hive except reproduction

Queen bee only fertile female in hive Only function - reproduction

Drones males that develop from unfertilized eggs Only function deliver sperm to queen Mouthparts too short to get nectar Workers must feed them May be few hundred during summer but when honey runs low, workers kill them and clear from hive

WORKER BEES
Lifetime 6 weeks After becoming adult, feed honey and pollen to queen, drones, and larvae This stage they are called nurse bees Secrete high-protein substance called royal jelly Feed to queen and youngest larvae

After about 1 week, workers stop producing royal jelly and secrete wax Use to build and repair honeycomb During this stage they can also remove wastes from hive, guard hive, and fan wings to circulate air through hive

Workers spend last weeks of life gathering nectar and pollen Mouthparts specialized for lapping up nectar Legs have structures that serve as pollen packers, pollen baskets, and pollen combs

Sterile worker doesnt use ovipositors for egg laying Modified into barbed stingers used to protect hive When worker stings, stinger and attached venom sack left behind and bee flies away Bee dies 1 or 2 days later Wasps can sting many time b/c stinger is not barbed

QUEEN BEE
Develops from egg identical to those that develop worker Difference results from continuous diet of royal jelly queen gets through development Queen also secretes pheromone queen factor that prevents other female larvae from becoming queen

Queens role is reproduction Within few days after emerging as adult, she flies out of hive and mates with one or more drones Sperm deposited stays for 5 or more years of her life Queen mates only once, may lay as many as a million eggs each year

When hive gets too crowded queen stops producing queen factor and leaves hive As she leaves she secretes swarming pheromone that makes the workers follow her and form swarm Swarm finds new location for new hive

Bees left at old hive feed royal jelly to other larvae New queen emerges, makes queen factor, workers destroy other developing queens New queen leaves on mating flight Cycle begins again

THE DANCES OF THE BEES

Karl von Frisch spent 25 years figuring out how bees communicate location of food to other workers in hive Built glass-walled hive and placed feeding stations near hive Noted scout bees returning from feeding stations performed dancelike movements in hive

Scout bee circles right then left Von Frisch called it round dance Concluded that round dance told other workers that food source near hive Did not tell them exact location

Also observed when food source far from hive scout bees perform another type of dance on vertical surface inside hive Called it waggle dance b/c scout bees waggled their abdomens from side to side Von Frisch showed direction of food indicated by angle of straight run on vertical surface Straight up direction of the sun Distance indicated by length of dance and number of waggles

ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR
When worker bees sting intruder to defend colony it dies Altruistic behavior aiding of other individuals at ones own risk/expense Why has evolution selected altruistic behavior for honeybees?

Look not on selection of individual bees but on selection of genes they have Worker bees are sterile Cannot pass own genes on by reproducing Can pass on some of genes by helping closely related individual to reproduce Defending colony increase chances queen bees survival If she survives, she produces more workers who share many of same genes Kin selection