1-3mm

Members of class insecta, order diptera 127 families, >85,000 species. Diptera - most important vectors human disease. > 1 million deaths p.a.
18-22mm

1-1.5mm

Flies - blackfly
Family Simuliidae.

1-3mm

Simulium damnosum, S. neavei - important vectors in Africa. Simulium ochraceum - important vector in New World (Australia New Zealand) Breeds close to fast moving water or water falls
Eggs are laid on running water, larvae attach on submerged structures e.g. rocks, trees & vegetation S. neavei in Africa occur on arthropods

Black fly

1-3mm

Effects on hosts. Allergic reactions. "Blackfly fever"

Vector - Onchocerca volvulus filarial nematode.

Vectors - Leucocytozoon spp. - "malaria" in birds.

Midges.
Effects on vertebrate hosts:
1-1.5mm

Annoyance.

Vectors of Acanthocheilonema perstans filarial parasite humans and other filarial nematodes.

Tabanids
Order Diptera. Suborder Brachycera 18-22mm Family Tabanidae. ~ 4000 species Females intermittent parasites Males not parasitic Adults - large body (6-25mm long) Large eyes - facilitates host location Mouthparts - cut large wound, where they feed from a formed pool of blood
5

Suborder Brachycera, Family Tabanidae.

Mechanical vectors:

(c). Flies - tabanids & bacteria.

18-22mm

Bacillus anthracis anthrax. Francisella tularensis - tularemia deerflies Chrysops spp.

Blood loss
Important genera: Tabanus

Flies - tabanids
18-22mm

Vectors Loa loa, - filarial nematode. Eye worm. Vectors for Chrysops spp. (deerflies). C. dimidiata - most important.

Flies - tsetse fly

Family Glossinidae, genus Glossina. Hosts & vectors of trypanosome protozoans. Trypanosoma brucei species complex. Sub-saharan Africa.

Flies - sandflies
Family Psychodidae Phlebotomus & Lutzomyia species Vectors of Leishmania - protozoa Cutaneous leishmaniasis (L. tropica - Old World L. mexicana- New World) Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (espundia) - L. braziliensis Visceral leishmanisis (kala azar) - L. donovani

Sand fly
Sand flies
Phlebotomus & Lutzomyia Short mouth parts, pool feeders Only take blood Vector of Leishmania, bartonellosis (bacterial) & sand fly fever (viral)

Less than 5mm length, hairy body & wings Old world species live in arid/semiarid conditions, new world species are forest dwellers
Epidemiological implication

Have limited flight range close to breeding sites Most active at twilight, night & shade

10

House fly
Musca domestica Domestic flies act as mechanical vectors of many diseases

11

Public Health importance

1. Nuisance Large numbers flies can be bring significant nuisance by disturbing people during work and at leisure. Flies soil the inside and outside of houses with their feaces. They can also have a negative psychological impact because their presence is considered a sign of unhygienic conditions.
12

2. Diseases Flies can spread diseases because they feed freely on human food and filthy matter Flies pick up disease-causing organisms while crawling and feeding Those that stick to the outside surfaces of the fly may survive for only a few hours, but those that are ingested with the food may survive in the flys crop or gut for several days
13

Diseases that flies can transmit include enteric infections (such as dysentery, diarrhoea, typhoid, cholera and certain helminth infections), eye Infections (such as trachoma)

14

 Triatomine Bugs (Order Hemiptera, Genus Triatoma) Fleas (Order Siphonaptera) Human Flea (Pulex) Rat Flea (Xenopsylla) Cat Flea (Ctenocephalides) Jigger Flea(Tunga) Bedbugs (Cimex)

Bugs
Class: Insecta Order: Hemiptera Family: Cimicidae ( bed bugs ) Family: Reduviidae Sub-family: Triatominae 15 genera with > 100 spp Panstrongylus, Triatoma, Rhodnius

Bed bugs
Family: Cimicidae Blood sucking Temporary ectoparasites of birds and mammals Human parasites: Cimex lectularis - main Cimex hemipterus
17

Morphology
Oval, dorso-ventrally flattened, red-brown bodies They are covered with short, stout hairs They are 5-7mm long, with females slightly larger than males Head have prominent compound eyes. The proboscis is flexed backwards under the head when not in use Legs terminate in a pair of simple claws Forewings reduced (hemielytra pads), hind wings absent
18

19

Habits
They feed at night on humans or other mammals A blood meal is essential to production of eggs Conceal themselves during the day in crevices of wooden beds, mattresses, or under loose wallpaper. In search for hosts, they respond to warmth & CO2, odours
20

Habits...
Are easily transported in clothing and baggage In cold weather they remain inactive in hiding places They can survive starvation for over a year Emit a characteristic odour from scent glands Often found in dwellings with high rate of occupant turnover hotels, motels, hostels, shelters & apartment complexes
21

Life Cycle
Females deposit about 200 eggs in cracks and crevices Eggs
White, ovoid, about 1mm in length Have an operculum at the anterior end They are coated with transparent cement They hatch in 4-10days No hatching at 37 or below 13 C

Incomplete metamorphosis
22

Life cycle...
Nymph Yellowish-white to brown Passes through 5 or 6 moults before becoming a sexually mature adult At 30C, development from eggs to adult takes 3 weeks The life span of the adult is 6-12 months

23

Medical Importance
Sleep disturbance Biting nuisance
The bite produces red, itching wheals Allergic symptoms local or generalised urticaria and asthma

Transmission of diseases?
Not believed to be a vector of disease As a mechanical carrier - Hepatitis B virus from human to human. Virus from faeces could infect a person by contamination of skin lesions or mucosal surfaces or by ingestion of dust
24

Triatomine bugs
Family: reduviidae Sub-family: triatominae Cone nose/assassin/kissing bugs Medically important, only found in americas Size: 1-4 cm long Elongated head Lateral 4- segmented antennae Eyes lateral

Tritomine bugs...
Proboscis ventrad Two pairs of wings Basal fore wing thick/hardened, posterior wing membrenous = heteroptera Lateral margins of abdomen visible dorsally

Triatomine bugs
Most are dull brown but some may have markings The shape of the head, position of the antennae relative to the eyes: genera specific

Hemimetabolous
Eggs laid in/near host habitations: cracks on walls

etc

Life cycle
Eggs are laid in batches 100-800 Hatch into wingless nymphs There are 5 nymphal instars, each requiring blood N4 and N5 have rudimentary wings May take in blood up to 10x body weight Assassin?

Life cycle
Both nymphs and adults feed nocturnally Feed on exposed parts of the body: face, eyes, nose, mouth - kissing Defecates during feeding Feed on humans, wild and domestic animals.

Life cycle
Development from egg to egg takes 3 months in lab but may take 1-2 yrs in nature

Vectors of T. cruzi:
R. prolixus, P. megistus, T. dimidiata and T.

infestans
Prevention and control Insecticide residual spraying, Insecticide treated bednets, improved housing

Order Siphonaptera
SIPHONAPTERA: Greek "siphon" (hollow tube) + "a" (without) + "pteron" (wing); fleas are wingless and have tube-like mouthparts for sucking blood Body hard, laterally compressed, and bristly Legs long with large coxae and 5-segmented tarsi Generally live as ectoparasites of mammals and birds. Fleas transmit various pathogens, including tapeworm and bubonic plague. About 1,100 species of Siphonaptera in the world, 238 in North America. 7 families of fleas based on characters of the head, abdomen, and various bristles. Many characters are visible only on specimens mounted on microscope slides.

Order Siphonaptera...
Pulicidae -- common fleas Ischnopsyllidae -- bat fleas Tungidae -- sticktight and chigoe fleas Dolichopsyllidae --rodent fleas

Hystrichopsyllidae -- rat and mouse fleas

Malacopsyllidae -- malacopsyllid fleas Vermipsyllidae -- carnivore fleas

Distribution
Species and genera are distributed in East-Asian, Central-Asian, West-American, Patagonian, Papuan (New Guinean), and East-African zoogeographical subregions.
Forest foothills with temperate and subtropical climate most favourable conditions for the fleas.

Morphology
Shape of the head, flat body & prehensile claws of legs help it to move easily through hosts wool Length of jump some flea species attain ~32 cm, average body length being from 1 to 5 mm

Biology
Fleas are obligatory blood feeders parasitizing warmblooded vertebrates. More than 94% of known species are parasites of mammals and only about 5% of them occur on birds Fleas have 4 phases of development - the egg, the freeliving larva, pupa and the imago

The larvae is wormlike, legless & eyeless with biting mouth parts. The larvae undergoes 3 instars. Prior to pupation it empties the alimentary canal, and spin a silken cocoon
The majority of fleas are closely associated with the host's home (nest, burrow etc), attacking the host for feeding

Life cycle
Adult flea jumps onto a host, gets a meal. A flea bite becomes inflamed, itchy and swollen

Once fed, the flea will mate and lay eggs. This occurs in yards, houses, & on pets In the next two to three weeks, hundreds of eggs will be laid in yard, house and on the host
Eggs hatch into small larvae, which feed on anything organic. Including dried blood, flea faeces, animal hair.

Life cycle...
The larva will feed for days, spin a cocoon and undergo metamorphosis This stage is called the flea pupa. Its a worst stage because of its resistance to control The cycle is completed when the flea pupa hatches out. Hatching occurs when a host is close, will bite and the cycle will start all over again

Medical significance
Fleas transmit pathogens that cause disease in humans and other animals.
The Cat and Dog flea are intermediate hosts for a tapeworm (Dipylidium caninum) that infects dogs, cats, and humans The Rabbit flea spreads a myxomatosis virus within rabbit populations Oriental Rat Flea is the primary vector of Yersinia pestis, the bacterial pathogen for bubonic plague.

The cat flea commonly infests dogs, dog flea may infest cats; both species may bite humans

Medical significance...
Sand flea/jigger, Tunga penetrans
Infect humans, pigs, birds Adapted to intracutaneous attachment, larvae free living, adults free living but after mating penetrate the hosts. Soft areas are preferred for penetration In the body attaches with mouth, swells and envelops itself leaving a spiracle for breathing Irritations start when a flea is mature, scratching helps to release eggs

Control
Best stage to control is an egg Treating animal pets
If the pet is an inside animal, treat the home and the pet If the pet is an outside animal, treat the pet & the area the pet has access to

Treat home areas when fleas suspected Application of repellents Keeping environments clean out of organic matter
Sweeping, mopping floors Treating floors with insecticides; DDT, OPs, PY, Cb Burning off infested soils

Flea trap to induce hatching of pupae

Control...
Wearing good, intact shoes Daily inspection of areas of the feet (interdigital clefts)

Other ectoparasites
Arachnid Vectors
1. TICKS Soft Ticks (Ornithodorus)
Hard Ticks (Ixodes, Amblyomma, Rhipicephalus, Dermacentor) 2. MITES (Dematophagoides, Demodex, Sarcoptes) Lice (Order Phthiraptera) Head/Body Lice (Pediculus) Crab Lice (Phthirus)
TICKS Soft Ticks Class: Arachnida Order: Acarina Family: Argasidae Genus: Ornithodorous

General Characteristics
-tough leathery integument -flattened oval shape when examined dorsally -they lack the dorsal shield -they need to be examined ventrally to observe their capitulum or mouthparts.

43

Ticks
Ornithodoros spp. is the most important soft tick disease vector found throughout the world Ornithodoros populating in Europe, Africa, Asia and Americas.

Life cycles
Soft ticks have a hemimetabolous life cycle, eggs hatching six legged larvae, which moult to eight legged nymphs

44

 There are 5 - 7 larval instars depending on the species

Each stage requiring a blood meal to proceed except of Ornithodoros moubata Adult females lay small egg batches following each blood meal

The duration of the life cycle depends on temperature, host availability and species
Disease Soft Ticks are vectors for serious disease including :
Tick borne relapsing fever (Borrelia duttoni) Rickettsial disease (Coxiella burneti), and some arboviruses

45

Hard Ticks
Class: Order: Family: Arachnida Acarina Ixodidae

Genus: Ixodes, Amblyomma, Rhipicephalus, Dermacentor

46

General Characteristics
They are flattened when examined dorsally Characterized by the presence of a dorsal plate or scutum, and a capitulum that projects beyond the body outline The scutum regularly covers the entire dorsal area

Ixodes spp. inhabit in Canada, Europe, Russia, China, Japan and Australia
47

 Ixodes Adult male

showing the scutum covering the whole length of the body

The capitulum is seen protruding forward beyond the body outline

48

Life Cycle
Similar to that of Soft Ticks There is only one nymph stage in Ixodes, and following several weeks of stasis the nymph will metamorphose into an adult

49

Diseases
Hard ticks transmit lyme disease, tick paralysis and Rickettsiae

Arboviruses that are responsible for encephalitis and haemorrhagic fevers, tularaemia and Babesia microti infection

51

Other medically important Hard Ticks

Wood ticks (Dermacentor andersoni) Found in the mountainous west of North America; Dog ticks (Rhipicephalus) found in coastal areas. Lone Star ticks (Amblyomma mericanum) found in forests in SE USA The females of these species causes tick paralysis.
52

Dermacentor variabilis

Amblyomma, male hard tick.

53

 Both Dermacentor and Amblyomma transmit Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (Rickettsia rickettsia). Dermacentor transmit arboviruses responsible for encephalitis and heamorrhagic fevers. D. variabilis is also responsible for spreading tularaemia, Mediterranean Spotted Fever and African Tick Typhus.

54

Control
Improve sanitation

Cementing floors to eliminate cracks and crevices and facilitate cleanliness Where floors are not cemented should be kept out of dust The floors and walls up to a height of about half a meter should be spread or dusted with lindane
55

 With dust floor monthly application would be necessary Other chlorinated hydrocabons, organophosphorus compounds, carbomates or pyrethroids may be used

56

Mites
Class: Order: Arachnida Acarina General Characteristics

Dematophagoides, is a common dust mite, Genus: Dematophagoides, inhabit beds, Demodex, Sarcoptes mattresses, carpets and house dust

57

 They are motile They feed on residual organic debris 0.3 mm in length They have four long legs, suckers and pincer chelicerae

58

 Dermatophagoides are antigenic, even when dead (fecal pellets are also allergenic) Associated with complex allergies & symptoms such as asthma, conjunctivitis and dermatitis. A treatment involves removal of accumulated antigens from mattresses and pillows

59

 Demodex have been implicated in dermatitis and should be considered in chronic, therapy-resistant cases of blepharitis (inflammation of eyelids)

The role of this mite in ocular disease is uncertain washing with soap and water is the most effective method of prevention.

60

 The mite, Sarcoptes scabiei, lives on human skin causes scabies It is small (larger female is 0.30.4 mm), colorless and oval with 8 short legs

61

 Symptoms of Sarcoptes infection arise after 4-6 weeks post invasion Comprise a papular pruritic eruption at a site often unrelated to the site of infestation; symptoms of secondary infestations arise almost immediately

62

 Persistent nodular scabies involve itchy erythematous or scabbed nodules When the immune system is impaired, Norwegian (crusted) scabies may develop
This presents with erythema and hyperkeratosis but little itching

63

Diagnosis
Discovery of mites or eggs by epidermal shave biopsy or superficial scraping Burrows are best seen on wrists and inter-digital spaces They fluoresce under a Wood's lamp after application of liquid tetracycline and alcohol; alternatively ink may be used

64

Treatment and control

Lindane lotion is the treatment of choice, permethrin is another alternative Ivermectin has been recommended for Norwegian scabies

Malathion liquid can also be used, benzyl benzoate is also active

65

 Malathion should be avoided in infants

Lindane should be avoided in pregnancy, breastfeeding and in young children Treatment is applied over the whole body except the head and neck and washed off after 24 hours

66

 Normal laundering of bed linen and clothes is recommended Household and sexual contacts should also be treated Symptoms may continue after treatment because of persisting antigens, Calamine lotion may be used
other problems include re-infestation and secondary bacterial infection
67

Myiasis
Infestation of the organs and tissues of humans or animals by fly larvae that for some period of time, feed upon the living or dead tissues or the ingested food of the host

It is the condition in which larvae of flies exist as parasites in bodies of vertebrates

Myasis
Myasis is caused when fly maggots (larvae of dipterans) invade living tissue or when they are harboured in the intestines or bladder Clinically, maggots causing myasis attack three parts of the bogy: Cutaneous tissue, body cavities and gut lumen

Myasis
Some spp of maggots cause subcutaneous myasis, invade sores &wounds (wound myasis), burrow under the skin (dermal myasis) Body cavity myasis: Nasal myasis, ocular myasis ear myasis, myasis of the anus and vagina Intestinal myasis-Eggs/larvae of many spp are deposited on food stuffs may survive the journey to intestinal tract. They may persist for months producing severe anxiety, and intestinal irritation

Myasis
Accidental = Facultative Myiasis Obligatory Myiasis

Myasis
A number of families of flies e.g. Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae and Oestridae are composed of flies that are have either facultative or obligate parasitic larval forms Family: Calliphoridae
Non- metallic flies e.g. Cordylobia anthropophaga(Tumbu fly), Auchmeromya senegalensis (Congo floor maggot)
Metallic flies screw worms e.g. Cochliomya hominivorax(New World), Chrysomia spp (Old World) Blow flies e.g. Lucilia spp (green bottles), Calliphora spp

Myasis
Family Sarcophagidae(Flesh flies) The two genera Sarcophaga and Wohlfahrtia are of medical importance Family Oestridae Subfamilies: Oestrinae, Gasterophilinae, Hypodermatinae and Cuterebrinae. Oestrinae, Gasterophilinae, Hypodermatinae are obligatory parasites of domestic animals Cuterebrinae has six genera that cause myasis in rodents, monkeys and livestock -Dermatobia hominis causes obligatory myasis in people and animals living in central and south America

Facultative Myiasis
Cutaneous myiasis - usually around wounds Larvae normally found in meat or carrion occasionally adapt to a parasitic existence

Usually do not invade healthy tissues

Typically blow flies: species of Calliphora (bluebottles), Lucilia (greenbottles), Phormia, Sarcophaga and Wohlfahrtia (flesh flies), Cochliomyia macellaria (secondary screw-worm), and others

Forensic Entomology, 2001. Byrd and Castner, Eds.

Forensic Entomology, 2001. Byrd and Castner, Eds.

Forensic Entomology, 2001. Byrd and Castner, Eds.

Facultative Myiasis
Enteric Myiasis - accidental ingestion

50 species reported - most Muscidae and Sarcophagidae Passive transport of larvae - no development in host digestive tract
Severity depends on fly species, number, location Genera commonly involved: Musca, Fannia, Muscina

Facultative Myiasis
Rectal/Urogenital Myiasis access to intestine via anus; larvae feed on excrement Immature stages may be completed in rectum or terminal part of intestine Can occur in humans under unsanitary conditions

Primary genera - Fannia, Musca, Sarcophaga

Sarcophaga Species

Obligatory Myiasis
Calliphorids (non-metallic): Cordylobia anthropophaga - tumbu or mango fly (Africa); larvae attach and burrow into skin leaving spiracles exposed - boil-like swelling [cover with paraffin or oil to extract] Auchmeromyia senegalensis - Congo floor-maggot (Africa); adult looks like tumbu fly, but larvae do not remain attached; feed nightly from people sleeping on the floor

Obligatory Myiasis
Calliphorids (metallic): Cochliomyia hominivorax - New World screw-worm; eradicated from US and Mexico, but outbreaks possible Chrysomya bezziana - Old World screw-worm

Sarcophagids (flesh flies): Wohlfahrtia magnifica - ear, eye, nose Oestrids (bot flies): Gasterophilus, Hypoderma, Oestrus, Cuterebra sp., and Dermatobia hominis (human bot fly)

Dermatobia hominis larva (human bot fly)

Control of Myiasis Species

Control or eradication of the fly population - through environmental sanitation or chemical control Avoidance of infestation (mechanical control) - do not sleep outdoors or on the ground during fly activity, dress or cover wounds to avoid fly strikes, use screening Treatment of infestation (remove larvae - antibiotic follow-up)