Three approaches
Ethical absolutists...there is a single standard in terms of assessments that can be made, and that standard is usually their own Ethical relativists see each culture as an island unto itself, right in its own world and they deny there is any overarching standard in terms of which conflicting culture can be judged Ethical pluralists acknowledge that cultures can legitimately pass judgments on one another and encourages us to listen to what other cultures say about us as well as what we say about them
Looking at three possible responses to moral conflicts (relativism, absolutism, and pluralism), assessing their respective merits and see how are applied in actual cases.
Concrete conflicts
Clitoridectomies (female circumcision; female genital mutilation) Forced marriage of underage girls
What happens when something that is legally and morally permissible in one culture is illegal and immoral in another?
Ethical relativistEach culture is right unto itself, so such practices would be morally permissible in some countries and morally wrong in the US Ethical absolutiststhere is a single moral truth in terms of which all cultures and individuals are to be judged Pluralists try to find some middle ground (in some situations this practice may make sense, less judgmental
These three ethical positions provide a rich context for understanding the variation of all ethical theories that Hinman discusses Divine command we ought to do whatever God wills Issue is whose God? and does God speak differently to each of us? or do we interpret the messages differently? Egoismeach person should act selfishly to maximize self interest
Utilitarian Should act in such a way as to produce the greatest overall amount of pleasure or happiness Kantian ethics Act in ways that respect the autonomy and dignity of ourselves and others persons Rights theorists content that there is a certain universal moral minimum with which all people must comply
Principle of understanding Principle of Tolerance Principle of standing up against evil Principle of fallibility
Different cultures have different moral codes. What is right within one group maybe abhorrent to another
Treatment of the dead Polygamy Sharing of wives among Eskimos Infanticide
Exercise:
Provide 5 examples of differing moral codes, customs, or behaviors Tell us what makes them unique, odd or different
Label them as backward, uneducated or natives Primitive Heathens Non-Christians Poke fun of themdiscriminate or harass Convert them to our custom or thought
Cultural Relativism
What are some examples of Cultural Relativism? Hasidic Jews in Postville Amish lifestyles Religious traditionsbaptisms, communion services CelebrationsSanta Claus, Easter Bunny, Halloween Parties: when, where and how Issues of privacy Housing style Personal hygiene Role of children
The right way is the way which the ancestors used and which has been handed down. The tradition is its own warrant. It is not held subject to verification by experience. The notion of right is in the folkways. . This line of thought has probably persuaded more people to be skeptical about ethics than any other single statement.
If we assume that our ethical ideas will be shared by all people at all times, we are merely nave Provide examples where ethical ideas in our society may have changed over the years?
Divorce, Living together, Mixed race marriages, Allowing same sex marriages Gambling, casinos, internet poker Internet dating Women in the workforce, women operating farm equipment, firewomen, truck drivers Spanking/punishment of children Acceptance of cremation for the dead Competition vs cooperation in farming, relying on neighbors help vs outbidding the neighbor Animal welfare, recognizing that animals have certain rights Natural resource protection Taming mother nature vs living with nature
Cultural Relativism
Different cultures have different moral codes often is used as a key to understanding morality. Proponents argue that there is not as universal truth in ethics; there are only the various cultural codes and nothing more. The customs of different societies is all that exist. Proponents would argue that customs can not be judged as correct or incorrect. Our own code of ethics has no special status, it is merely one among many
Cultural relativism
Challenges our ordinary belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truths. It says in effect that there is no such thing as a universal truth in ethics, there are only cultural codes and nothing more Your own code of ethics offers nothing special, it is merely one among many
Different societies have different moral codes The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one societies code as better than another The moral code of our society offers nothing special There is no universal truth in ethics It is arrogant to judge the conduct of other societies, we should adopt an attitude of tolerance
For example: Premises: 1. Different cultures have different moral codes 2. Therefore, there are no objective truth in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to culture. This is cultural differences argument.
An example; The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead. The Callatians believed it was right. Does it follow, from the mere fact that they disagreed, that there is no objective truth in the matter? No it does not followit could be objectively right or wrong that one or the other was simply mistaken.
Another example: Society A believes the world is flat and Society B believes the world to be round. Just because these two societies disagree, there is objective truth about the shape of the earth. We can verify that members of the flat earth society are simply mistaken, uneducated or failed geography in middle school.
Progress implies doing things better, but cultural relativism rejects making judgments about past eras. Reform movements such as rights to women and minorities that implies modern society is better is a judgment that is impossible to make.
As a result, most thinkers reject the cultural relativism arguments. 1. It makes sense to condemn some practices wherever they occur 2. It makes sense to acknowledge that our society while imperfect has made moral progress 3. Because Cultural Relativism implies these judgments make no sense, the argument goes, it cannot be right.
Source of Customs
Beliefsreligious beliefs Physical circumstances of the society Just because customs differ, there may be less disagreement on basic values Example: Eskimos infanticide drastic measures are sometimes needed to ensure the familys survival The Eskimos values are not all that different than our own..It is only that life forces upon them choices that we do not have to make
What are some other customs that differ from our own?
Marriage vows Church attendance Neighboring Role of women Burial and funerals Eating habits Rites of passage of children becoming adults
3.
There are some moral rules that all societies must have in common, because those rules are necessary for society to exist.
What other universal values or moral rules can you think of?
Prohibition against incest Personal responsibility The proper role of government is to take care of its citizens Everyone should serve their country Everyone should obey the law
Judging a cultural practice to be undesirable Ex. In 1996 a 17 year old girl from Togo a West African country arrived in the US and asked for asylum to avoid excision, a practice referred to as female circumcision or female genital mutilation. According to the WHO, the practice is widespread in 26 African countries and 2 million girls are excised each year. Reaction in the New York Times, encouraged the idea that excision was a barbaric practice and should be condemned.
Young girls often look forward to this because it a acceptance into adulthood. It is an accepted practice in many villages. Consequences of excision painful, results in permanent loss of sexual pleasure, hemorrhage, tetanus, septicemia, death, chronic infections, hinder walking, chronic pain Apparent no social benefits, not a matter of religious beliefs
Rationale for the practice Women are incapable of sexual pleasure and less likely to be promiscuous Fewer unwanted pregnancies in unmarried women Women will be more faithful to their husbands Un-excised women are viewed as unclean and immature Arguments for this practice is that it benefits men, women, families and children
Is excision, harmful or helpful? Cultural Relativist would conclude that excision has been practiced for centuries and we should not intervene and change ancient ways.
We may ask whether a practice promotes or hinders the welfare of the people who lives are affected by it. And as a corollary, Is there an alternative set of social arrangements that would do a better job of promoting their welfare. If so, we may conclude that the existing practice is deficient.
Reluctance to Criticize Many thoughtful people have been reluctant to criticize what many view as a barbaric practice because: 1. Interfering with the social customs of other people. (Europeans and Americans have been criticized for destroying other cultures, Native Americans)
2. Acceptance of strange practices (tolerance) toward others. 3. Reluctance to criticize other societies, do not want to express contempt
3.
Rests on invalid argument Although it enjoys much appeal Two important lessons
1.
Warns us about the dangers of assuming that our preferences are based upon some absolute rational standard. They are not. Many of our practices are merely particular to our society and it is easy to forget this.
There are many matters that we tend to think of in terms of objective right or wrong, that are really nothing more than social conventions.
Other examples of social conventions that we think of as right or wrong that are really nothing more than social conventions.
Women covering their breasts, separate restrooms for men and women, men opening the door for women, No shoes, no shirt, no service Dear _________ fathers giving their daughters away in wedding ceremony, wearing a wedding band on the fourth finger of the left hand, swearing, drinking, gambling, etc
2. Keep an open mind Maybe our feelings about practices, values and beliefs are merely social conventionsexample homosexuality. Maybe our feelings are not necessarily perceptions of the truththey may be nothing more than cultural conditioning
There is a certain appeal to cultural relativism, but there are some major shortcomings to the the theory. Many of the practices and attitudes that we think as natural law are really only cultural products. Need to keep this in mind if we are to avoid being arrogant and have open minds