PROFASE I Leptotene Locusta migratoria Lilium grandiflorum Petunia hybrida

Leptotene [Gr. leptos = thin; taenia = band / stripe] is the first stage of meiosis. This is also the first step in the condensation of DNA, a phenomenon that proceeds through the entire prophase I. Despite the thread-like aspect of th chromosomes each consist in fact of twee chromatides, because the DNA has been already replicated during the premeiotic S-fase. Also small regions with thickenings (so-called chromomeres) arise in the chromatine on each chromosome, which make them look like a pearl nacklace. The homolog chromosomes are still unpaired.

Zygotene

Locusta migratoria

Lilium grandiflorum

Petunia hybrida

At zygotene [Gr. zygon = touching another], the stage after leptotene, the pairing of the homolog chromosomes (synapsis) begins. The homolog chromosomes are hold together by proteins (synaptomal complex). Next, crossing-over can happen between the DNA-double helices molecules of homolog chromosomes.

Pachytene Locusta migratoria Lilium grandiflorum Petunia hybrida

Characteristic for pachytene [Gr. pachus = dik], a stage of prophase I, are the complete pairing of the chromosomes and the lining-up of the chromomeres. Synapsis, that commonly shifts like a zip from the telomeres to the centromeres, is now at a climax. The nucleoli are often still visible at pachytene.

Diplotene Locusta migratoria Lilium grandiflorum Petunia hybrida

During diplotene [Gr. diplous = in twofold] it becomes clearly visible that each replicated chromosome consists of two sister-chromatides. Each bivalent consist of a bundle of four homolog chromatides. Homologs exhibit a weaker binding and slightly diverge. The crossings (= chiasmata; singular chiasma, named after the cross-shaped lgreek letter chi) between non-sisterchromatides are visible. Each bivalent shows in general one or more chiasmata, where crossing-overs have occured.

Diakinesis Locusta migratoria Lilium grandiflorum

At diakinesis [Gr. dia = apart; Gr. kinein = to move] the chromatides that we in a crossing-over are entangling. Since the chromatides deiverge the chiasmata become clearly apparent. Nuclear membrane and nucleoli completely disappear. The spindle arises: from each centrosomes (in animal cells) at the poles microtubules 'grow'. Some microtubules anchor to the kinetochores of the chromosomes. The shortening and thickening of the chromatides proceeds.

Loose connective tissue Areolar connective tissue (or loose connective tissue) is the most widely distributed connective tissue type in vertebrates. Location It can be found in the skin as well as in places that connect epithelium to other tissues. The areolar tissue is found beneath the dermis layer and is also underneath the epithelial tissue of all the body systems that have external openings. It is also a component of mucus membranes found in the digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary systems. It also surrounds the blood vessels and nerves.

Composition It is a pliable, mesh-like tissue with a fluid matrix and functions to cushion and protect body organs. Cells called fibroblasts are widely dispered in this tissue; they are irregular branching cells that secrete strong fibrous proteins and proteoglycans as an extracellular matrix. The cells of this type of tissue are generally separated by quite some distance by a gel-like gelatinous substance primarily made up of collagenous and elastic fibers Function It acts as a packaging tissue holding the internal organs together and in correct placement. It holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue to other underlying tissues.

Classification Loose connective tissue is named based on the "weave" and type of its constituent fibers. There are three main types: Collagenous fibers: collagenous fibers are made of collagen and consist of bundles of fibrils that are coils of collagen molecules. Elastic fibers: elastic fibers are made of elastin and are "stretchable." Reticular fibers: reticular fibers consist of one or more types of very thin collagen fibers. They join connective tissues to other tissues.
Section of the human esophagus. Moderately magnified.

It has lots of spindles that help the bones get bone marrow

Fibrous connective tissue In zootomy, fibrous connective tissue (FCT) is a type of connective tissue which has relatively high tensile strength, due to a relatively high concentration of collagenous fibers. Such tissues form ligaments and tendons; the majority of the tissue does not contain living cells, the tissue is primarily composed of polysaccharides, proteins, and water. The cells of fibrous connective tissue are mostly fibroblasts, irregular, branching cells that secrete strong fibrous proteins as an extracellular matrix. The most commonly secreted protein is collagen which represents one-fourth of all vertebrate protein. Collagen is tough and flexible and gives strength to tissue. Elastin fibers are thinner than collagen fibers and are also secreted by fibroblasts. These protein fibers have longer cross-links than collagen fibers, which gives elastin fibers great elasticity.

Types There are several categories of fibrous connective tissue: Loose connective tissue supports most epithelia and many organs. It also surrounds blood vessels and nerves. It is also found between muscles Dense connective tissue has collagen fibers as its main matrix element. Elastic connective tissue is primarily composed of elastin fibers, giving them great elasticity. It appears in the walls of the aorta. Reticular connective tissue is composed of interlacing fibers of collagen called reticular fibers. This tissue forms supporting structures for many organs, such as the spleen and thymus.

Definition of Tendon Tendon: The tissue by which a muscle attaches to bone. A tendon is somewhat flexible, but fibrous and tough. When a tendon becomes inflamed, the condition is referred to as tendinitis or tendonitis. Inflamed tendons are at risk for rupture. Tendons are like ligaments in being tough, flexible cords. But tendons differ from ligaments in that tendons extend from muscle to bone whereas ligaments go from bone to bone as at a joint. Despite their tough fibrous nature, tendons and ligaments are both considered "soft tissue," that is soft as compared to cartilage or bone.

Definition of Ligament Ligament: A ligament is a tough band of connective tissue that connects various structures such as two bones.

Structure and Function of Ligaments and Tendons Ligaments and tendons are soft collagenous tissues. Ligaments connect bone to bone and tendons connect muscles to bone. Ligaments and tendons play a significant role in musculoskeletal biomechanics. They represent an important area of orthopaedic treatment for which many challenges for repair remain. Again, as with all biological tissues, ligaments and tendons have a hierarchical structure that affects their mechanical behavior. Ligaments and tendons can adapt to changes in their mechanical environment due to injury, disease or excerise. Ligaments and tendons are another example of the structure-function concept and the mechanically mediated adaptation concept that permeate this biomechanics course.

The largest structure in the above schematic is the tendon (shown) or the ligament itselt. The ligament or tendon then is split into smaller entities called fascicles. The fascicle contains the basic fibril of the ligament or tendon, and the fibroblasts, which are the biological cells that produce the ligament or tendon. There is a structural characteristic at this level that plays a significant role in the mechanics of ligaments and tendons: the crimp of the fibril. The crimp is the waviness of the fibril; we will see that this contributes significantly to the nonlinear stress strain relationship for ligaments and tendons and indeed for bascially all soft collagenous tissues

TENDONS

Anatomy: 1. Tendons contain collagen fibrils (Type I) 2. Tendons contain a proteoglycan matrix 3. Tendons contain fibroblasts (biological cells) that are arranged in parallel rows Basic Functions 1. Tendons carry tensile forces from muscle to bone 2. They carry compressive forces when wrapped around bone like a pulley Type I Collagen: 1. ~86% of tendon dry weight 2. Glycine (~33%) 3. Proline (~15%) 4. Hydroxyproline(~15%, almost unique to collagen,often used to identify) Blood Supply: 1. Vessels in perimysium (covering of tendon) 2. Periosteal insertion 3. surrounding tissues

LIGAMENTS Anatomy 1. Similar to tendon in hierarchical structure 2. Collagen fibrils are slightly less in volume fraction and organization than tendon 3. Higher percentage of proteoglycan matrix than tendon 4. Fibroblasts Blood Supply 1. Microvascularity from insetion sites 2. Nutrition for cell population; necessary for matrix synthesis and repair

Cartilage
Cartilage is usually found in close association with bone in the body. It is a type of connective tissue which is tough, semi-transparent, elastic and flexible. The matrix or ground substance of cartilage consists mainly of glycoprotein material, chondroitin. The cartilage cells (chondrocytes) lie scattered in the matrix. Cartilage is covered by a dense fibrous membrane, the perichondrium. No nerves or blood vessels occur in cartilage. In some vertebrates, such as sharks, the entire skeleton is made up of cartilage. In mammal embryos, the skeleton first forms as cartilage tissue. Cartilage acts as a model and is gradually replaced by bone as the embryo grows. Such cartilage is known as temporary cartilage. The process by which bone tissue follows the cartilage model and slowly replaces it is known as ossification. Permanent cartilage (cartilage which does not become ossified) is found in the tip of the nose, in the external ear and in the walls of the trachea (windpipe) and the larynx (voice-box).

Hyaline cartilage. Hyaline cartilage is semi-transparent and appears bluishwhite in colour. It is extremely strong, but very flexible and elastic. Hyaline cartilage consists of living cells, chondrocytes, which are situated far apart in fluid-filled spaces, the lacunae. There is an extensive amount of rubbery matrix between the cells and the matrix contains a number of collagenous fibres. Hyaline cartilage occurs in trachea, the larynx, the tip of the nose, in the connection between the ribs and the breastbone and also the ends of bone where they form joints. Temporary cartilage in mammalian embryos also consists of hyaline cartilage.

Functions Reduces friction at joints. By virtue of the smooth surface of hyaline cartilage, it provides a sliding area which reduces friction, thus facilitating bone movement. Movement Hyaline cartilage joins bones firmly together in such a way that a certain amount of movement is still possible between them. Support The c-shaped cartilagenous rings in the windpipes (trachea and bronchi) assist in keeping those tubes open. Growth Hyaline cartilage is responsible for the longitudinal growth of bone in the neck regions of the long bones.

White Fibrocartilage. White fibrocartilage is an extremely tough tissue. The orientation of the bundles depends upon the stresses acting on the cartilage. The collagenous bundles take up a direction parallel to the cartilage. Fibrocartilage is found as discs between the vertebrae between the pubic bones in front of the pelvic girdle and around the edges of the articular cavities such as the glenoid cavity in the shoulder joint. Functions Shock absorbers. The cartilage between the adjacent vertebrae absorbs the shocks that will otherwise damage and jar the bones while we run or walk. Provides sturdiness without impeding movement. The white fibrocartilage forms a firm joint between bones but still allows for a reasonable degree of movement. Deepens sockets. In articular cavities (such as the ball-and-socket joints in the hip and shoulder regions) white fibrocartilage deepens the sockets to make dislocation less possible.

Elastic cartilage. Basically elastic cartilage is similar to hyaline cartilage, but in addition to the collagenous fibres, the matrix of the elastic also contains an abundant network of branched yellow elastic fibres. They run through the matrix in all directions. This type of cartilage is found in the lobe of the ear, the epiglottis and in parts of the larynx. Functions Maintain shape. In the ear, for example, elastic cartilage helps to maintain the shape and flexibility of the organ. Support Elastic cartilage also strengthens and supports these structures.

Muscle Tissue

Muscle is a very specialized tissue that has both the ability to contract and the ability to conduct electrical impulses. Muscles are are classified both functionally as either voluntary or involuntary and structurally as either striated or smooth. From this, there emerges three types of muscles: smooth involuntary (smooth) muscle, striated voluntary (skeletal) muscle and striated involuntary (cardiac) muscle.

Striated Voluntary (Skeletal) Muscle Tissue

This slide above shows skeletal muscle prepared in such a way that the individual fibres (1) have been teased apart and isolated. The fibres of skeletal muscle should not be confused with the fibres of connective tissue. Connective tissue fibres are extracellular elements, whereas skeletal muscle fibres describe the individual skeletal muscle cells. Each cell is called a fibre because it is thin and very long, making it look like a thread, or fibre of clothing, when isolated. Note that a single fibre (cell) can span the entire length of the muscle. Microscopically, each cell is cylindrical, unbranched and contains many nuclei (2 - this is also called multinucleate). The nuclei are arranged around the periphery of the cell just beneath the cell membrane. The characteristic striations seen are a result of the orderly arrangement of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle cell (seen well on the slide on the right). In the body, skeletal muscle cells are arranged into bundles (called fascicles) surrounded by thin layers of connective. These fascicles are again arranged into larger bundles, which form the particular muscular organ (i.e. the biceps). The connective tissue surrounding these fascicles extends as dense regular connective tissue to anchor the muscle to the bone in the form of a tendon.

Glial cell
Glial cells, commonly called neuroglia or simply glia (greek for "glue"), are non-neuronal cells that provide support and nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. In the human brain, glia are estimated to outnumber neurons by about 10 to 1.[1] Glial cells provide support and protection for neurons, the other main type of cell in the central nervous system. They are thus known as the "glue" of the nervous system. The four main functions of glial cells are to surround neurons and hold them in place, to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons, to insulate one neuron from another, and to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.

Function of the glial cell as physical support for neurons important developmental roles, guiding migration of neurons in early development, and producing molecules that modify the growth of axons and dendrites hippocampus and cerebellum have indicated that glia are also active participants in synaptic transmission, regulating clearance of neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft, releasing factors such as ATP which modulate presynaptic function, and even releasing neurotransmitters themselves. have a role in the regulation of repair of neurones after injury. In the CNS glia suppress repair. Astrocytes enlarge and proliferate to form a scar and produce myelin and inhibitory molecules that inhibit regrowth of a damaged or severed axon. In the PNS Schwann cells promote repair. After axon injury Schwann cells regress to an earlier developmental state to encourage regrowth of the axon.