Nuclear Fusion

According to the binding energy curve, energy

can be released if two light nuclei (A < 56) are
combined to form a nucleus of A < 56. This
process is called nuclear fusion. However this
process is hindered (obstructed) by the
mutual Coulomb repulsion that tends to
prevent two such positively charged nuclei
from coming within range of each others
attractive nuclear forces. This process is the
reverse process of nuclear fission.

Advantages of fusion over fission:
(1) Light nuclei are plentiful and easy to obtain.
(2) The end products of fusion are usually light,
stable nuclei rather than radioactive nuclei.
Disadvantages :
Before light nuclei can be combined, their
mutual Coulomb repulsion must be overcome.
That is initially we need to supply some
energy
Possibility of natural fusion

Method 1
Consider the fusion of two
20
Ne nuclei to force
40
Ca.


Q = 2 m(
20
Ne) - m(
40
Ca)
= 2 x 19.992436 39.962591
= 0.022281 x 931.5 MeV
= 20.75 MeV

Q + + Ca Ne Ne
40
20
20
10
20
10
At the point where the two nuclei are touching
each other Coulomb potential
energy is given by


Here


If we were to perform the nuclear reaction we
need to supply an amount of energy 21.2 MeV
and finally we get a total of 21.2 + 20.7 = 41.9
MeV.

MeV 21.2 =
2
1
4
10
2 4
) 10 (
Vc
0
2
2
0
2
R
e
R
e
tc tc
= =
fm. 3.4 = fm 20 x 25 . 1
3
1
= R
Therefore in order to achieve the fusion, we need
to supply a kinetic energy of 10.6 MeV (= 21.2/2
MeV) for each of the
20
Ne nuclei and let them
make a head-on collision. The energy 10.6 MeV
per nucleus is needed to overcome the Coulomb
potential barrier.
This energy can be supplied by accelerating
20
Ne
ions using heavy ion accelerators. Two
20
Ne ion
beams can be used to make head-on collisions of
20
Ne ions for fusion to take place. Available heavy
ion accelerates produce ion beams of
nanoampere (nA) to microampere (A) beams.
Consider a
20
Ne ion beam of 1A current. Let n be the
number of
20
Ne ions colliding in one beam per
second.
A current of 1A
20
Ne beam
= 10
-6
A
= (n ions s
-1
) x (10 e)
= (n ions s
-1
) x (10 x 1.6 x 10
-19
C)
Therefore n = 6.25 x 10
11
ions s
-1

Energy produced in 1s= (6.25 x 10
11
ions)x (20.75 MeV)
= 6.25 x 10
11
x 20.75 x 1.6 x 10
-13
J
= 2.08 J
Power produced = 2 W.

Method 2
An alternative approach would be to heat a
container of
20
Ne until the thermal energy is
large enough to supply the required energy to
over come the coulomb potential. This would
inhibit fusion. This process is called
thermonuclear fusion.
The mean thermal kinetic energy of a particle
in equilibrium at a temperature T is given by


where k = 8.6 x 10
-5
eV K
-1
(Boltzmann constant).

kT KE
2
3
=
Kinetic energy required to overcome the
Coulomb potential barrier by each
20
Ne ion
KE = 21.2/2 = 10.6 MeV
Required temperature required is given by
3KT/2 = 10.6 MeV. T = 10
11
K.

Therefore thermonuclear fusion in practice is
not possible because achieving temperatures
of the order of 10
11
K is impossible. So fusion
is not at all a natural process on Earth because
substantial limitations imposed by the
Coulomb barrier.


Thermonuclear Fusion in Stars
The Sun can be regarded as an extremely
successful prototype of a self sustaining
thermonuclear reactor. As far as we can tell
from the fossil records on Earth, the Suns
output has been nearly constant over a time
scale of more that 10
9
y.
Mass of the sun = 2.0 x 10
30
kg
Radius of the sun = 7.0 x 10
8
m
Luminosity of the sun = 3.9 x 10
26
W
The central temperature of the sun = 1.5 x 10
7
K.
The central density of the sun = 10
5
Kg m
-3
(13 times
density of lead)
The central pressure of the sun = 2 x 10
11
atm
Present composition of the suns core by mass
H (hydrogen) 35%
He (helium) 65%
Proton density at the core = 125 g cm
-3

= 7.5 x 10
25
protons cm
-3


Hydrogen is by far the most abundant material in the
universe. More than 90% of the atoms in the universe
are hydrogen.
At these high temperatures the light elements are
totally ionized and what we have in the core of the sun
are H
+
(protons), He
+
(o particles) and electrons.

The cycle is initiated by
1
H +
1
H
2
H + e
+
+ v + Q ( = 0.42 MeV)
e
+
+ e

2 + Q ( = 1.02 MeV)
The cross section (o) for the formation of deuterium is
of the order of = 10
-33
b at keV energies.
The cross section (o) for the formation of deuterium is
of the order of = 10
-23
b at MeV energies

At the centre of the sun T = 1.5 x 10
7
K and the
thermal kinetic energy distribution of
1
H
(protons) is given by the Maxwell's
distribution as shown below.
kT 2kT 3kT 4kT 5kT 6kT
0
n(E)
Fig 6.1 : Thermal kinetic energy distribution of
1
H (protons) is given by the Maxwell's distribution.
E
Most probable energy
Mean kinetic energy
Most probable velocity
Most probable velocity

the corresponding energy
Mean kinetic energy is given by

=3x (8.6 x 10
-5
) x (1.5 x 10
7
)/2
= 1.9 keV


m
kT
v
2
=
kT mv E = =
2
2
1
kT KE
2
3
=
Height of the Coulomb barrier for two
1
H ions
(proton) is given by



Required kinetic energy for each
1
H
= 0.288 MeV
Required temperature is given by

MeV MeV
e
V
c
576 . 0
5 . 2
1
x 44 . 1
1 25 . 1 2
1
4
3
1
0
2
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
tc
MeV
2
576 . 0
=
K 10 x 2.2 = T 10 x 0.288 T ) 10 (8.6
9 6 -5
2
3
2
3
= = kT
Even though the mean KE is 1.9 KeV the Maxwell
distribution curve has a long tail and there are few
1
H (proton) which have KE > 0.288 MeV. When two
protons each of energy > 0.288 MeV collide fusion
can take place. But for KE < 0.288 MeV also the
fusion can take place through Quantum Mechanical
Barrier penetration.

The initial reaction is
1
H +
1
H
2
H + e
+
+ v + Q ( = 0.42 MeV).(1)
e
+
+ e

2 (Q = 1.02 MeV)
Number of protons in the Sun is 4 x 10
56
. In
spite of this slowness of p-p collisions the
reaction rate is 10
38
s
-1
.
Following deuteron formation, it becomes
very likely that a deuteron collides with
another proton and forms a
3
He.
2
H +
1
H
3
He + + Q ( = 5.49 MeV)..(2)
It is very unlikely at this point to observe D-D
reactions because of the small number of
deuterons present. Only one deuteron is
formed for every 10
18
proton, and thus it is
about 10
18
times more likely that a deuteron
will react with a proton than with another
deuteron.

Then
3
He can react with
1
H,
2
H or
3
He.
Reactions of
3
He with
1
H (protons) are not
possible

3
He +
1
H
4
Li
3
He +
1
H
The isotope
4
Li does not exist as a bound system,
and it breaks up as soon as it is formed. It is also
unlikely for
3
He to react with
2
H because the
density
2
H is very low and because
2
H is
converted to
3
He very rapidly. The fate of a
3
He is
thus to wander until it finds another
3
He
3
He +
3
He
4
He +
1
H +
1
H + Q ..(3)
Q = 12.86 MeV

The complete process is indicated below and
it is known as the proton-proton cycle.
2
1
H + 2
1
H 2
2
H + 2e
+
+ 2 v ..(1)
2 e
+
+ 2 e

4

2
2
H + 2
1
H 2
3
He + 2 ..(2)
3
He +
3
He
4
He + 2
1
H ..(3)

The net reaction is the conversion of four
protons to helium:
4
1
H + 2 e

4
He + 2v + 6 + Q
Add 2e

for both sids

4(
1
H
+
+ e

) (
4
He
++
+ 2 e

) + 2v + 6 + Q
4
1
H
4
He + 2v + 6 + Q
Q = 4 m(H) c
2
+ m(He) c
2

= [4 x 1.007825 u + 4.002603 u] x 931.5 MeV
= 26.7 MeV

The neutrinos emitted in the p-p reaction
takes an average 0.25 MeV of energy each.
This energy is lost into outer space, but is not
included in the observed luminosity. About 0.5
MeV is associated with the two neutrinos that
are produced in each cycle. Subtracting
neutrino energy leaves 26.3 MeV per cycle.
Therefore for every proton consumes 26.2/4 =
6.55 MeV energy is produced.
Energy produced per 1 kg of protons



The heat of combustion of coal is 3.3 x 10
7
J
kg
-1
which is about 20 million times smaller.
For each hydrogen atom consumed in
thermonuclear fusion process leads to the
emission of 6.6 MeV of electromagnetic
energy from the Sun.

1 - 14 13 -
27 -
kg J 10 x 6.3 = J/MeV 10 x 1.6 x
kg/proton 10 x 1.67
MeV/proton 6 . 6
=
The solar power reaching the Earth= 1.4 x 10
3
W m
-2

Distance between the sun and the Earth= 1.5 x 10
11
m
Area spread over the sphere through the Earth (4t r
2
)
= 4t x (1.5 x 10
11
)
2
m
2

= 28 x 10
22
m
2

total energy output from the sun
= 28 x 10
22
x 1.4 x 10
3
W
= 4 x 10
26
W
= 2.5 x 10
39
MeV s
-1




Energy liberated from each fusion reaction
= 26.7 MeV
no. of fusion reactions per second
= (2.5 x 10
39
/ 26.7 ) s
-1
= 10
38
s
-1

no. of protons consumed per second= 4 x 10
38
s
-1

Mass of the sun = 2 x 10
30
kg
Proton mass of the sun = 35% x (2 x 10
30
) kg
= 6.6 x 10
29
kg
the no. of protons presently in the sun
= 6.6 x 10
29
/ (1.67 x 10
-27
) kg
= 4 x 10
56


Time period for future burning of protons
= 4 x 10
56
/ (4 x 10
38
) s
= 10
18
s
= 3 x 10
11
years

number of protons consumed during the life time
of the sun assuming the conversion rate is the
same through out) = (4 x 10
38
) x 4.6 x 10
19
y
= 5.4 x 10
55

number of protons presently we have in the sun
= 40 x 10
55


We can conclude that less than 10% of the
hydrogen of the sun has so far been
consumed and appreciate the long time scale
of this stage of stellar evolution.
Precise calculations show that there are
enough protons for another 5 x 10
9
y.