Endocrine System The endocrine system is a collection of specialized cells, tissues and glands that produce and secrete

chemical messengers called hormones that control many body functions. Endocrine glands are ductless and secrete their hormones into interstitial fluid, lymph, and blood. Exocrine glands secrete its products into ducts that empty into the appropriate sites. Hormones are bloodborne information units. Come from endocrine glands Circulate in the bloodstream Act on specific cells in the body
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Endocrine glands are stimulated in one of three ways: 1. By nervous impulses (usually from the hypothalamus) 2. By hormones (usually from the hypothalamus or anterior pituitary) 3. By humoral stimulation (usually a chemical [glucose, calcium] regulated by the hormone which activates or inhibits hormone release

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Endocrine System Characteristics Access to every cell because hormones circulate in the blood Each hormone acts only on specific cells (target cells) because only the hormones target cells have the appropriate receptor to fit it; Endocrine control slower than nervous system Endocrine and nervous systems interact i.e. timing of growth and sexual maturation involves a complex sequence of changes in both endocrine and nerve signals; release of some hormones is dependent on input from sensory neurons.
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Classification of Hormones
Hormones are classified as steroid or nonsteroid based on their structure and mechanism of action. Steroid hormones: Lipid soluble, chemically derived from cholesterol Enter target cells, bind to an intracellular receptor and activate genes that produce new proteins Slower acting than nonsteroid hormones; minutes to hours depending on how long it takes to produce a new protein

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 Nonsteroid hormones:
Water soluble; derived from amino acid protein building blocks Bind to receptors on target cell membranes; the binding either opens or closes cell membrane ion channels or activates enzymes within the cell which produces a change in the cell The binding of hormone to receptor typically converts an inactive molecule within the cell into an active molecule. The activated molecule produces a chemical which is called a second messenger. Work through intermediate mechanisms to activate existing enzymes so that even a small amount of hormone can produce a significant cellular change Faster action than steroid hormones, seconds to minutes
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Homeostasis is generally maintained by a negative feedback loop.

In a negative feedback loop involving a hormone, the endocrine gland is the control center, the hormone represents the pathway between the control center and the effectors, and the effectors are the hormones target cells, tissues, or organs.
An endocrine system negative feedback loop is a stable, self-adjusting mechanism for maintaining homeostasis of the controlled variable because any change in the controlled variable causes a response that reverses that change.
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Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary Gland

The hypothalamus, in the forebrain, plays an important role in regulation of homeostasis. It monitors fluid and electrolyte balance, temperature, and carbohydrate metabolism. Also produces hormones Has specialized neuroendocrine cells which function as both nerve and endocrine cells; they generate nerve impulses and release hormones into the blood vessels, called the neuroendocrine reflex Monitors the pituitary gland, an endocrine gland located beneath the hypothalamus and connected to it by a tissue stem.

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Hypothalamus and the Posterior Pituitary Gland

Pituitary Gland (also called hypophysis) Called the master gland because it secretes 8 different hormones and regulates many of the other endocrine glands; Consists of 2 lobes: posterior and anterior

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Posterior pituitary:
Connection to hypothalamus: hormones made in hypothalamus, stored in posterior pituitary Hormones: nonsteroidal; made by neuroendocrine cells Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): causes reabsorption of water in kidneys, regulates water balance in body Oxytocin: causes uterine contractions during labor and milk ejection

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Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland Anterior pituitary: Releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus travel to anterior pituitary through the pituitary portal system--a special blood supply that runs directly between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary. Even though the amount of these hormones is tiny, the concentrations are enough to stimulate the anterior pituitary gland cells

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Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones: nonsteroidal: Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates adrenal cortex ACTH-Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticosteroids (steroid hormones
involved in stress related conditions and the metabolism of glucose)

TSH-Thyroid Stimulating Hormone Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone
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Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): induces egg development and sperm development Luteinizing hormone (LH): promotes ovulation and testosterone. These hormones are absent until ages 10-13 years and their production stimulates sexual maturation and development of the secondary sexual characteristics Prolactin (PRL): stimulates the development of mammary gland cells and production of milk Growth hormone (GH): widespread effects on growth

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Pituitary Disorders

Endocrine disorders tend to be chronic conditions of hypersecretion (too much hormone) or hyposecretion (too little hormone) Syndrome of inappropriate ADH secretion (SIADH): hypersecretion of ADH, excessive water retention so the body is out of balance symptoms: headache, vomiting Diabetes insipidus: hyposecretion of ADH, inability to save water appropriately; frequent urination

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Pituitary Disorders

Gigantism: hypersecretion of growth hormone during childhood and adolescence; usual cause is a tumor of the anterior lobe of the pituitary. Person has relatively normal body proportions Acromegaly: hypersecretion of growth hormone in adulthood; overgrowth of hands, feet and face Pituitary dwarfism: hyposecretion of growth hormone during childhood; immediate treatment with growth hormone during childhood

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Pancreas: Endocrine Functions Pancreas is both an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland (secreting products into the digestive tract) Endocrine cells are located in the Islets of Langerhans; clusters of cells throughout the pancreas Hormones: nonsteroidal: all work to regulate blood sugar
Glucagon: made by alpha cells; raises blood sugar Insulin: made by beta cells, lowers blood sugar Somatostatin: made by delta cells, inhibits secretion of glucagon and insulin, regulates other hormones
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Disorders of the Endocrine System Since the endocrine system is one of 2 primary systems for controlling body functions, any disruption can have a widespread effect Diabetes mellitus: DMpoor control of blood sugar resulting in an inability to get glucose into cells so the glucose stays in the circulatory system and overwhelms the kidneys ability to resorb the sugar so it gets excreted in the urine. Because of the high level, the person also excretes a large amount of water and thus goes to the bathroom extremely frequently.
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 Person becomes dehydrated and very thirsty, tired, has blurred vision, frequent infections, slow healing cuts, tingling in feet and hands. When glucose cant be metabolized correctly, the body will metabolize fat and proteins. This causes other problemscardiovascular and neural diseases, renal failure, blindness, and potentially leg amputations.

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 There are 2 types of diabetes: Type I -caused by the failure of the pancreas to secrete enough insulin possibly caused by a virus that causes the immune system to attack the beta cells of the pancreas Person is insulin dependent for the rest of his/her life

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 Type II -thought to be insulin resistance cells fail to respond adequately to insulin even when present Usually occurs in adults over 40 years Treatment: lifestyle changes Oral pills: drugs to stimulate the pancreas to secrete more insulin; drugs that increase the uptake of glucose by the liver and muscle cells New: inhalable insulin
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Adrenal Glands Adrenal glands are located just above the kidneys Have an outer layercortex and an inner layer--medulla Adrenal cortex: Secretion: mediated through hypothalamuspituitary secretions Hormones: steroidal:

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Adrenal Gland-Cortex
Glucocorticoids: cortisol assists glucagon in maintaining glucose levels during prolong fasting by promoting using fats and amino acids (liver can use amino acids to make glucose) AND Suppresses inflammation after infection or injury Also secreted when we are under emotional stress Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone--primarily regulates minerals (sodium and potassium) Also helps maintain body water balance
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Adrenal Gland: Medulla

Adrenal medulla: neuroendocrine organ (when these are released into blood stream, funtion as hormones; when work as neurotransmitters, are nervous system transmitters Secretion: sympathetic nervous system Hormones: nonsteroidal: Epinephrine and norepinephrine: enhance function of sympathetic nervous system (fightor-flight response) Play role in metabolism and controlling blood pressure and heart activity
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Adrenal glands: Addisons disease: failure of adrenal cortex to secrete sufficient cortisol and aldosterone
Lack of cortisol decreases blood sugar levels Lack of aldosterone lowers blood sodium levels Symptoms: fatigue, weakness, abdominal pain, weight loss Treatment is medicine to replace hormones
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 Cushings syndrome: excessive cortisol production causing Excessive production of glucose and retention of too much salt and water. Blood sugar rises and muscle mass decreases because protein is used to make sugar. Some glucose is converted to fat but in specific areas of the bodythe face, abdomen and back of the neck (a hump of fat can be seen by the neck) Symptoms include weakness, fatigue, edema and high blood pressure
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Thyroid Gland Located below larynx at the front of the trachea. Functionally linked to the parathyroid gland. Both help regulate calcium balance. Thyroid gland helps control metabolism. Secretion: mediated through hypothalamus pituitary secretions Steroidal hormones: Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): both regulate production of ATP from glucose, affect metabolic rate
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Thyroid Gland
Iodine deficiency causes decrease in production of thyroid hormones This causes goiter which is a result of the failure of the feedback inhibition of production of TRH and TSH. TSH causes increase in size of thyroid gland as a result of the gland trying to produce more hormones which it cant do because of lack of iodine Calcitonin: decreases rate of bone resorption lowers blood calcium levels by stimulating the intake of calcium by bone and increasing bone mass Especially important for the development of bones in children
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Disorders of the Endocrine System

Thyroid:
Hyperthyroidism: overactive thyroid gland; hyperactivity, nervousness, agitation and weight loss Graves disease: an autoimmune disease in which the persons antibodies stimulate the thyroid to produce too much thyroxine. Accompanied by protruding eyes (caused by fluid accumulation behind the eyes)

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Parathyroid Glands Located in the back of the thyroid gland Hormone: parathyroid hormone (PTH), nonsteroidal: Removes calcium and phosphate from bone Increases absorption of calcium by the digestive tract Increases retention by the kidneys of calcium and excretion of phosphate PTH increases the calcium concentration in the blood and is secreted in response to lowered blood calcium levels
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Reproductive Hormones
The gonads (testes and ovaries) are responsible for the production of sperm and eggs and production of the sex hormones. The testes, located in the scrotum, produce androgens, the male sex hormone. Hormone: in males: the androgen testosterone (steroidal): Functions: Regulates development and normal functioning of sperm, male reproductive organs, male sex drive Development of male secondary sex characteristics and bone and muscle growth at puberty
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Ovaries

Hormones (steroidal) and functions:

Estrogen: initiates development of secondary sex characteristics, regulates menstrual cycle Progesterone: regulates menstrual cycle

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Other Hormone Sources Thymus: thymosin and thymopoietin, assist maturation of T lymphocytes (non-steroidal hormone) Pineal gland: melatonin
Receives input from the eyes; melatonin secretion is higher in the dark; important in synchronizing the bodys rhythms to the daily light/dark cycle (Circadian cycle or rhythm)

Heart: atrial natriuretic hormone (ANH) (nonsteroidal hormone); secreted by the atria to help regulate blood pressure by increasing the rate at which sodium and water are excreted in urine thus decreasing blood volume
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Other Hormone Sources Digestive system: gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin; they stimulate activities of the stomach, pancreas and gallbladder Kidney: Erythropoietin stimulates RBC production Renin stimulates aldosterone secretion and constricts blood vessels

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Other Chemical Messengers Function in ways similar to hormones but arent secreted directly into the bloodstream.
Actions of these are primarily local Actions short because they are wither quickly destroyed or reabsorbed by the cells that produced them

Histamine: inflammation
Mast cells release into local interstitial fluid in response to tissue injury or allergen presence Histamine increases local mucus secretion, dilates blood vessels and increases the leakiness of capillaries
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 Prostaglandins: local control of blood flow;

Can constrict and dilate blood vessels depending on what is needed; contribute to the inflammatory response; involved in blood clotting at injury site

Nitric oxide: multiple functions

Regulates local blood flow, regulating smooth muscle contraction in the digestive tract; fights bacteria, interferes with clotting mechanisms

Growth factors: local acting to modify development

of specific tissues; influence when a cell will divide

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Hormones of the Pituitary Gland

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Table 13.1

Negative Feedback Control of Thyroxine Secretion

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Figure 13.13

Homeostatic Regulation of Blood Calcium Concentration

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Figure 13.15a

Homeostatic Regulation of Blood Calcium Concentration

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Figure 13.15b

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Steroid Hormone Action on a Target Cell

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Figure 13.2

Nonsteroid Hormone Action on a Target Cell

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Figure 13.3

Role of Negative Feedback Loops

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Figure 13.4

Hypothalamus and the Anterior Pituitary Gland

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Figure 13.7

Roles of Insulin and Glucagon in Regulating Blood Glucose

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Figure 13.9

Secretion of Cortisol

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Figure 13.10

Disorders of the Endocrine System

Thyroid:
Hypothyroidism: underactive thyroid gland slows body growth, changes brain development, delays the onset of puberty Children: cretinismmental retardation and stunted growth Adults: myxedemaswelling under the skin, lethargy, weight gain, low body temperature

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