Counting III: Pascals Triangle,

Polynomials, and Vector Programs

Great Theoretical Ideas In Computer Science
Steven Rudich CS 15-251 Spring 2003
Lecture 11 Feb 14, 2004 Carnegie Mellon University
X
1
X
2

+ +
X
3

1 + X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+ + X
n-1
+ X
n
=

X
n+1
- 1

X

- 1

The Geometric Series
1 + X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+ + X
n
+ .. =

1

1 - X

The Infinite Geometric Series
(X-1) ( 1 + X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+ + X
n
+ )
= X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+ + X
n
+ X
n+1
+ .
- 1 - X
1
- X
2
- X
3
- - X
n-1
X
n
- X
n+1
-

= 1



1 + X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+ + X
n
+ .. =

1

1 - X

1 + x + ..
____________________
1-x | 1

-[1 x]
_____
x
-[x x
2
]
______
x
2

-....
1 + X
1
+ X
2
+ X
3
+ + X
n
+ .. =

1

1 - X

1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+ + a
n
X
n
+ .. =

1

1 - aX

Geometric Series (Linear Form)
(1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ + a
n
X
n
+ ..) (1 + bX
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ + b
n
X
n
+ ..) =

1

(1 aX)(1-bX)

Geometric Series
(Quadratic Form)
(1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ + a
n
X
n
+ ..) (1 + bX
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ + b
n
X
n
+ ..) =
1 + c
1
X
1
+ .. + c
k
X
k
+



Suppose we multiply this out
to get a single, infinite
polynomial.

What is an expression for C
n
?
(1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ + a
n
X
n
+ ..) (1 + bX
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ + b
n
X
n
+ ..) =
1 + c
1
X
1
+ .. + c
k
X
k
+





c
n
=

a
0
b
n
+ a
1
b
n-1
+ a
i
b
n-i
+ a
n-1
b
1
+ a
n
b
0


(1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ + a
n
X
n
+ ..) (1 + bX
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ + b
n
X
n
+ ..) =
1 + c
1
X
1
+ .. + c
k
X
k
+



If a = b then

c
n
= (n+1)(a
n
)

a
0
b
n
+ a
1
b
n-1
+ a
i
b
n-i
+ a
n-1
b
1
+ a
n
b
0


(a-b) (a
0
b
n
+ a
1
b
n-1
+ a
i
b
n-i
+ a
n-1
b
1
+ a
n
b
0
)
= a
1
b
n
+ a
i+1
b
n-i
+ a
n
b
1
+ a
n+1
b
0
- a
0
b
n+1
a
1
b
n
a
i+1
b
n-i
- a
n-1
b
2
- a
n
b
1


= - b
n+1
+ a
n+1

= a
n+1
b
n+1


a
0
b
n
+ a
1
b
n-1
+ a
i
b
n-i
+ a
n-1
b
1
+ a
n
b
0
=

a
n+1
b
n+1

a

- b

(1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ + a
n
X
n
+ ..) (1 + bX
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ + b
n
X
n
+ ..) =
1 + c
1
X
1
+ .. + c
k
X
k
+



if a = b then

c
n
=

a
0
b
n
+ a
1
b
n-1
+ a
i
b
n-i
+ a
n-1
b
1
+ a
n
b
0


a
n+1
b
n+1

a

- b

(1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ + a
n
X
n
+ ..) (1 + bX
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ + b
n
X
n
+ ..) =

1

(1 aX)(1-bX)

Geometric Series (Quadratic Form)
a
n+1
b
n+1

a

- b

n=0..1
X
n
=
=

n=0..1
X
n
or
(n+1)a
n
when a=b
Previously, we saw that

Polynomials Count!
The number of
ways to rearrange
the letters in the
word BANANA.
1 X 1 X 1 X 1 X
1 X
1 X
1 X
Choice tree for terms of (1+X)
3
1 X
X X
2
X X
2
X
2
X
3
Combine like terms to get 1 + 3X + 3X
2
+ X
3
The Binomial Formula
(1 X) + =
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
+ +
F
H
G
I
K
J
+ +
F
H
G
I
K
J
n k n
n n
X
n
X
n
k
X
n
n
X
0 1 2
2
. . . . . .
binomial
expression
Binomial Coefficients
0
(1 )
n
n k
k
n
x x
k
=
| |
+ =
|
\ .

The Binomial Formula

0
(1 )
n
n k
k
n
x x
k
=
| |
+ =
|
\ .

One polynomial,
two representations
Product form or
Generating form
Additive form or
Expanded form
0
0
(1 )
n
n k
k
k
k
n
x x
k
n
x
k
=

=
| |
+ =
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .

Closed form or
Generating form
Power series (Taylor series) expansion
Since 0 if
n
k n
k
| |
= >
|
\ .
Power Series Representation
By playing these two representations against
each other we obtain a new representation of
a previous insight:
0
0
(1 )
2
n
n k
k
n
n
k
n
x x
k
n
k
=
=
| |
+ =
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .

Let x=1.
The number of
subsets of an
n-element set
0
0
1
even odd
(1 )
0 ( 1)
2
n
n k
k
n
k
k
n n
n
k k
n
x x
k
n
k
n n
k k
=
=

| |
+ =
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

Let x= -1.
Equivalently,
By varying x, we can discover new identities
0
0
1
even odd
(1 )
0 ( 1)
2
n
n k
k
n
k
k
n n
n
k k
n
x x
k
n
k
n n
k k
=
=

| |
+ =
|
\ .
| |
=
|
\ .
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

Let x= -1.
Equivalently,
The number of even-sized subsets of an n element
set is the same as the number of odd-sized subsets.
We could discover new identities
by substituting in different
numbers for X. One cool idea is to
try complex roots of unity,
however, the lecture is going in
another direction.
0
(1 )
n
n k
k
n
x x
k
=
| |
+ =
|
\ .

Proofs that work by manipulating

algebraic forms are called
algebraic arguments. Proofs
that build a 1-1 onto
correspondence are called
combinatorial arguments.
0
(1 )
n
n k
k
n
x x
k
=
| |
+ =
|
\ .

Let O
n
be the set of binary strings of
length n with an odd number of ones.

Let E
n
be the set of binary strings of
length n with an even number of ones.

We gave an algebraic proof that

,O
n
, = , E
n
,
1
even odd
2
n n
n
k k
n n
k k

| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

A Combinatorial Proof
Let O
n
be the set of binary strings of length n
with an odd number of ones.

Let E
n
be the set of binary strings of length n
with an even number of ones.


A combinatorial proof must construct a one-to-
one correspondence between O
n
and E
n

An attempt at a correspondence
Let f
n
be the function that takes an
n-bit string and flips all its bits.



...but do even n work? In f
6

we have
110011 001100
101010 010101

Uh oh. Complementing maps
evens to evens!
f
n
is clearly a one-to-one
and onto function
for odd n. E.g. in f
7
we have
0010011 1101100
1001101 0110010
A correspondence that works for all n

Let f
n
be the function that takes an
n-bit string and flips only the first bit.
For example,

0010011 1010011
1001101 0001101

110011 010011
101010 001010


The binomial coefficients have so
many representations that many
fundamental mathematical
identities emerge
0
(1 )
n
n k
k
n
x x
k
=
| |
+ =
|
\ .

The Binomial Formula

(1+X)
1
=
(1+X)
0
=
(1+X)
2
=
(1+X)
3
=
1
1 + 1X
1 + 2X + 1X
2

1 + 3X + 3X
2
+ 1X
3

(1+X)
4
= 1 + 4X + 6X
2
+ 4X
3
+ 1X
4

Pascals Triangle:
k
th
row are the coefficients of (1+X)
k
(1+X)
1
=
(1+X)
0
=
(1+X)
2
=
(1+X)
3
=
1
1 + 1X
1 + 2X + 1X
2

1 + 3X + 3X
2
+ 1X
3

(1+X)
4
= 1 + 4X + 6X
2
+ 4X
3
+ 1X
4

k
th
Row Of Pascals Triangle:

(1+X)
1
=
(1+X)
0
=
(1+X)
2
=
(1+X)
3
=
1
1 + 1X
1 + 2X + 1X
2

1 + 3X + 3X
2
+ 1X
3

(1+X)
4
= 1 + 4X + 6X
2
+ 4X
3
+ 1X
4

, , ,..., ,...
0 1 2
n n n n n
k n
| | | | | | | | | |
| | | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
Inductive definition of kth entry of nth row:
Pascal(n,0) = Pacal (n,n) = 1;
Pascal(n,k) = Pascal(n-1,k-1) + Pascal(n,k)
(1+X)
1
=
(1+X)
0
=
(1+X)
2
=
(1+X)
3
=
1
1 + 1X
1 + 2X + 1X
2

1 + 3X + 3X
2
+ 1X
3

(1+X)
4
= 1 + 4X + 6X
2
+ 4X
3
+ 1X
4

0
0
1 1
0 1
2 2 2
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3
0 1 2
3 3 3
0 3
1
3
1 2
| |
|
\ .
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
| | | | | |
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
\ . \ . \ . \
=
= =
= = =
= =
.
= =
Pascals Triangle
Al-Karaji, Baghdad 953-1029

Chu Shin-Chieh 1303
The Precious Mirror of the Four Elements
. . . Known in Europe by 1529
Blaise Pascal 1654
Pascals Triangle
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

It is extraordinary
how fertile in
properties the
triangle is.
Everyone can
try his
hand.
Summing The Rows
1
1 + 1
1 + 2 + 1
1 + 3 + 3 + 1
1 + 4 + 6 + 4 + 1
1 + 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1
1 + 6 + 15 + 20 + 15 + 6 + 1

=1
=2
=4
=8
=16
=32
=64

0
2
n
n
k
n
k
=
| |
=
|
\ .

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
6+20+6 1+15+15+1 =
Summing on 1
st
Avenue
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

1
( 1)
1 2 2
n n
i k i k
i n
n n
i
= =
+
| | | | +
= = =
| |
\ . \ .

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

Summing on k
th
Avenue

1
1
n
i k
i n
k k
=
+
| | | |
=
| |
+
\ . \ .

1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

=2
=5
=13
=3
=8
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
Al-Karaji Squares
1
1 1
1 2 + 2*1
1 3 + 2*3 1
1 4 + 2*6 4 1
1 5 + 2*10 10 5 1
1 6 + 2*15 20 15 6 1

=0
=1
=4
=9
=16
=25
=36

All these properties can be
proved inductively and
algebraically. We will give
combinatorial proofs using
the Manhattan block walking
representation of binomial
coefficients.
How many shortest routes from A to
B?
B
A
10
5
| |
|
\ .
Manhattan
kth Avenue
0
1
2
3
4
jth Street
0
1
2
3
4
Manhattan
kth Avenue
0
1
2
3
4
Level n
0
1
3
4
2




.
Manhattan
kth Avenue
0
1
2
3
4
Level n
0
1
3
4
2




.
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
level n
kth Avenue
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
3
4
4
6
15
6
6
5
5
10
10
15 20
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
level n
kth Avenue
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
3
4
4
6
15
6
6
5
5
10
10
15 20
1 1
1
n n n
k k k

| | | | | |
= +
| | |

\ . \ . \ .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
level n
kth Avenue
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
3
4
4
6
15
6
6
5
5
10
10
15 20
1
even
2
n
k
n
k

| |
=
|
\ .

. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
level n
kth Avenue
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
3
4
4
6
15
6
6
5
5
10
10
15 20
2
0
2
n
k
n n
k n
=
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

0! 1
1 if 0
0 if 0 or
n
k
k
n
k k n
k
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
| |
= < >
|
\ .
By convention:
(empty product = 1)
1
1
1
n
i
i n
k k
=
+
| | | |
=
| |
+
\ . \ .

1
Corollary ( 1)
1
( 1)
2 2
n
i
k
n
n n
i
=
=
+
| | +
= =
|
\ .

. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
level n
kth Avenue
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
2
3
4
4
6
15
6
6
5
5
10
10
15 20
Application (Al-Karaji):
2 2 2 2 2
0
1
1 2 3
(1 0 1) (2 1 2) (3 2 3) ( ( 1) )
1 0 2 1 3 2 ( 1)
2 3 4 5 1
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
(2 1)( 1)
2
3 2 6
n
i
n
i
i n
n n n
n n i
n n
n n
n n n
=
=
= + + + +
= + + + + + + + +
= + + + + +
+ (
| | | | | | | | | | | |
= + + + + + +
( | | | | | |
\ . \ . \ . \ . \ . \ .

+ +
| | | | + +
= + =
| |
\ . \ .

Vector Programs
Lets define a (parallel) programming
language called VECTOR that operates
on possibly infinite vectors of numbers.
Each variable V
!
can be thought of as:

< * , * , * , * , *, *, . . . . . . . . . >

0 1 2 3 4 5 . . . . . . . . .
Vector Programs
Let k stand for a scalar constant
<k> will stand for the vector <k,0,0,0,>

<0> = <0,0,0,0,.>
<1> = <1,0,0,0,>

V
! +
T
!
means to add the vectors position-wise.

<4,2,3,> + <5,1,1,.> = <9,3,4,>
Vector Programs
RIGHT(V
!
) means to shift every number in V
!
one
position to the right and to place a 0 in position 0.

RIGHT( <1,2,3, > ) = <0,1,2,3,. >



Vector Programs
Example:

V
!
:= <6>;
V
!
:= RIGHT(V
!
) + <42>;
V
!
:= RIGHT(V
!
) + <2>;
V
!
:= RIGHT(V
!
) + <13>;

V
!
= < 13, 2, 42, 6, 0, 0, 0, . . . >

Stare

V
!
= <6,0,0,0,..>
V
!
= <42,6,0,0,..>
V
!
= <2,42,6,0,..>
V
!
= <13,2,42,6,.>
Vector Programs
Example:

V
!
:= <1>;

Loop n times:
V
!
:= V
!
+ RIGHT(V
!
);
V
!
= n
th
row of Pascals triangle.

Stare

V
!
= <1,0,0,0,..>

V
!
= <1,1,0,0,..>
V
!
= <1,2,1,0,..> V
!
= <1,3,3,1,.>
X
1
X
2

+ +
X
3

Vector programs
can be implemented
by polynomials!
Programs -----> Polynomials
The vector V
!
= < a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, . . . > will be
represented by the polynomial:


Formal Power Series
The vector V
!
= < a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, . . . > will be
represented by the formal power series:




V
!
= < a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, . . . >
<0> is represented by 0
<k> is represented by k
RIGHT(V
!
) is represented by (P
V
X)
V
!
+ T
!
is represented by (P
V
+ P
T
)
Vector Programs
Example:

V
!
:= <1>;

Loop n times:
V
!
:= V
!
+ RIGHT(V
!
);
V
!
= n
th
row of Pascals triangle.

P
V
:= 1;
P
V
:= P
V
+ P
V
X;
Vector Programs
Example:

V
!
:= <1>;

Loop n times:
V
!
:= V
!
+ RIGHT(V
!
);
V
!
= n
th
row of Pascals triangle.

P
V
:= 1;
P
V
:= P
V
(1+ X);
Vector Programs
Example:

V
!
:= <1>;

Loop n times:
V
!
:= V
!
+ RIGHT(V
!
);
V
!
= n
th
row of Pascals triangle.

P
V
= (1+ X)
n

What is the coefficient of X
k

in the expansion of:

( 1 + X + X
2 +
X
3 +
X
4 +
. . . . )
n
?
Each path in the choice tree for the
cross terms has n choices of exponent
e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
0. Each exponent can be
any natural number.
Coefficient of X
k
is the number of
non-negative solutions to:
e
1
+ e
2
+ . . . + e
n
= k
What is the coefficient of X
k

in the expansion of:

( 1 + X + X
2 +
X
3 +
X
4 +
. . . . )
n
?
n
n -1
+
| |
|
\ .
1 k
( 1 + X + X
2 +
X
3 +
X
4 +
. . . . )
n
=
( )
k
k 0
n
X
n - 1

=
+
| |
=
|

\ .

1
1
1
n
k
X
What is the coefficient of X
k
in the
expansion of:

(a
0
+ a
1
X + a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+ ) ( 1 + X + X
2 +
X
3 +
. . . )

= (a
0
+ a
1
X + a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+ ) / (1 X) ?
a
0
+ a
1
+ a
2
+ .. + a
k
(a
0
+ a
1
X + a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+ ) / (1 X)

=
k
k 0 i 0
a X
=
= =
| |
|
\ .

i k
i
=

PREFIXSUM(a
0
+ a
1
X + a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+ )
Lets add an instruction
called PREFIXSUM to our
VECTOR language.

W
!
:= PREFIXSUM(V
!
)

means that the i
th
position
of W contains the sum of all
the numbers in V from
positions 0 to i.
What does this program output?
V
!
:= 1
!
;
Loop k times: V
!
:= PREFIXSUM(V
!
) ;


kth Avenue
0
1
2
3
4
Can you see how
PREFIXSUM can be
represented by a familiar
polynomial expression?
W
!
:= PREFIXSUM(V
!
)

is represented by

P
W
= P
V
/ (1-X)
= P
V
(1+X+X
2
+X
3
+ .. )
Al-Karaji Program
Zero_Ave := PREFIXSUM(<1>);
First_Ave := PREFIXSUM(Zero_Ave);
Second_Ave :=PREFIXSUM(First_Ave);

Output:=
First_Ave + 2*RIGHT(Second_Ave)
OUTPUT
!
= <1, 4, 9, 25, 36, 49, . >
Al-Karaji Program
Zero_Ave = 1/(1-X);
First_Ave = 1/(1-X)
2
;
Second_Ave = 1/(1-X)
3
;

Output =
1/(1-X)
2
+ 2X/(1-X)
3
(1-X)/(1-X)
3
+ 2X/(1-X)
3

= (1+X)/(1-X)
3
(1+X)/(1-X)
3
Zero_Ave := PREFIXSUM(<1>);
First_Ave := PREFIXSUM(Zero_Ave);
Second_Ave :=PREFIXSUM(First_Ave);

Output:=
RIGHT(Second_Ave) + Second_Ave
Second_Ave = <1, 3, 6, 10, 15,.
RIGHT(Second_Ave) = <0, 1, 3, 6, 10,.
Output = <1, 4, 9, 16, 25

(1+X)/(1-X)
3

outputs <1, 4, 9, ..>


X(1+X)/(1-X)
3

outputs <0, 1, 4, 9, ..>

The k
th
entry is k
2



X(1+X)/(1-X)
3
= k
2
X
k


What does X(1+X)/(1-X)
4
do?



X(1+X)/(1-X)
4
expands to :


S
k
X
k


where S
k
is the sum of the
first k squares


Aha! Thus, if there is an
alternative interpretation of
the k
th
coefficient of
X(1+X)/(1-X)
4
we would have a new way to
get a formula for the sum of
the first k squares.
Using pirates and gold we
found that:
( )
k
k 0
n
X
n - 1

=
+
| |
=
|

\ .

1
1
1
n
k
X
( )
k
k 0
X
3

=
+
| |
=
|

\ .

4
3
1
1
k
X
THUS:
Coefficient of X
k
in P
V
= (X
2
+X)(1-X)
-4
is
the sum of the first k squares:

( )
k
k 0
X
3

=
+
| |
=
|

\ .

4
3
1
1
k
X
Vector programs -> Polynomials
-> Closed form expression
Expressions of the form
Finite Polynomial / Finite Polynomial

are called Rational Polynomial
Expressions.

Clearly, these expressions have some
deeper interpretation as a
programming language.


What about this one?


X/(1-X-X
2
)
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
2
0
1
i
i
i
x
F x F x F x F x Fx
x x

=
= + + + + =


The action of dividing one
polynomial by another can
simulate a program to recursively
compute Fibonacci numbers.
Vector Program I/O
Example:

INPUT I
!
; /* not allowed to alter I
!
*/

V
!
:= I
!
+ 1;
Loop n times:
V
!
:= V
!
+ RIGHT(V
!
) + I
!
;

OUTPUT V
!

Vector Recurrence Relations
Let P be a vector program that takes input.

A vector relation is any statement of the
form:
V
!
= P( V
!
)

If there is a unique V
!
satisfying the
relation, then V
!
is said to be defined by the
relation V
!
= P( V
!
).

Fibonacci Numbers
0 1
1 2
1
0, 1,
,
n n n
n
F F
F F F

>
= =
= +
Recurrence Relation Definition:
Vector Recurrence Relation
Definition:

F
!
= RIGHT( F
!
+ <1> ) + RIGHT( RIGHT( F
!
) )
F
!
= RIGHT( F
!
+ <1> ) + RIGHT( RIGHT( F
!
) )
RIGHT(F
!
+<1>) = 0, a
0
+ 1, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
,
F
!
= a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, . . .
RIGHT( RIGHT( F
!
) )
= 0, 0 , a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, .
F
!
= RIGHT( F
!
+ 1 ) + RIGHT( RIGHT( F
!
) )
RIGHT(F

+ 1) = (F+1) X
F = a
0
+ a
1
X + a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+
RIGHT( RIGHT( F ) )
= F X
2
F = (F + 1) X + F X
2
RIGHT(F

+ 1) = (F+1) X
F = a
0
+ a
1
X + a
2
X
2
+ a
3
X
3
+ . . .
RIGHT( RIGHT( F ) )
= F X
2
F = F X + X + F X
2
Solve for F.
F - FX - FX
2
= X
F(1-X-X
2
) = X

F = X/(1-X-X
2
)
What is the Power Series
Expansion of x / (1-x-x
2
) ?

Since the bottom is
quadratic we can factor it.

X / (1-X-X
2
) =

X/(1- |X)(1 (-|)
-1
X)

where | =

The Golden Ratio
X

(1 |X)(1- (-|
-1
X)

Linear factors on the bottom

n=0..
=
X
n
?
(1 + aX
1
+ a
2
X
2
+ + a
n
X
n
+ ..) (1 + bX
1
+ b
2
X
2
+ + b
n
X
n
+ ..) =

1

(1 aX)(1-bX)

Geometric Series (Quadratic Form)
a
n+1
b
n+1

a

- b

n=0..1
X
n
=
=
1

(1 |X)(1- (-|
-1
X)

Geometric Series (Quadratic Form)
|
n+1
(-|
-
1)
n+1

\5

n=0..
=
X
n
X

(1 |X)(1- (-|
-1
X)

Power Series Expansion of F
|
n+1
(-|
-
1)
n+1

\5

n=0..
=
X
n+1
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
2
0
1
i
i
i
x
F x F x F x F x Fx
x x

=
= + + + + =


2
0
1 1
1
5
i
i i
i
x
x
x x
|
|

=
| |
| |
| =
|
|

\ .
\ .

0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3
2
0
1
i
i
i
x
F x F x F x F x Fx
x x

=
= + + + + =


The i
th
Fibonacci number is:

0
1 1
5
i
i
i
|
|

=
| |
| |
|
|
|
\ .
\ .

References
Applied Combinatorics, by Alan Tucker

Generatingfunctionology, Herbert Wilf