AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

1. Design of inverter circuit 2. Design of filter 3. THD with and without filter

CONTENTS
Overview of project phase 1 Inverter circuit diagram Working of inverter circuit Simulation and practical results Design of filter Measurement of harmonics THD with and without filter conclusion

OVERVIEW PROJECT PHASE PHASE 1 1 OVERVIEW OF OF PROJECT

SINGLE PHASE HALF BRIDGE INVERTER

3 wire dc source required 2 identical capacitor Transistors switched on and off alternately Each provides opposite polarity of Vs/2 across the load For positive cycle of voltage Q1 transistor will turn on and for negative cycle Q2 transistor will turn on.

HALF BRIDGE TOPOLOGY

Q1 on, Q2 off, Vo = Vs/2

Q1 off, Q2 on, Vo = -Vs/2

SWITCHING OF HALF BRIDGE INVERTER

SINGLE PHASE FULL BRIDGE INVERTER

3-wire DC source required Identical capacitor Q1-Q2 and Q3-Q4 switched on and off alternately Each pair provide opposite polarity of Vs across the load For positive cycle of voltage Q1,Q2 transistor will turn on and for negative cycle Q3,Q4 transistor will turn on.

FULL BRIDGE TOPOLOGY

Q1-Q2 on, Q3-Q4 off, vo = Vs

Q3-Q4 on, Q1-Q2 off, vo = -Vs

WORKING OF NORMAL INVERTER

An inverter is used to produce an un-interrupted 220V AC or 110V supply to the device connected as the load at the output socket. The inverter gives constant AC voltage at its output socket when the AC mains power supply is not available When the AC mains power supply is not available, an oscillator circuit inside the inverter produces a 50Hz MOS drive signal. This MOS drive signal will be amplified by the driver section and sent to the output section MOSFETs or Transistors are used for the switching operation. These MOSFETs or Transistors are connected to the primary winding of the inverter transformer. When these switching devices receive the MOS drive signal from the driver circuit, they start switching between ON & OFF states at a rate of 50 Hz. This switching action of the MOSFETs or Transistors cause a 50Hz current to the primary of the inverter transformer. This results in a 220V AC or 110V AC (depending on the winding ratio of the inverter transformer) at the secondary or the inverter transformer. This secondary voltage is made available at the output socket of the inverter by a changeover relay. 9

INVERTER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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WORKING OF INVERTER CIRCUIT

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COMPONENTS REQUIRED
IC 555 TRANSISTORS RESISTANCES CAPACITANCE TRANSFORMER INDUCTANCE

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IC555
The 555 Timer IC is available as an 8-pin metal can, an 8-pin mini DIP (dual-in-package) or a 14-pin DIP.

The SE 555 is designed for the operating temperature range from 55C to 125 while the NE 555 operates over a temperature range of 0 to 70C.

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IC555

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Pin 1: Grounded Terminal: All the voltages are measured with respect to this terminal. Pin 2: Trigger Terminal: This pin is an inverting input to a comparator that is responsible for transition of flip-flop from set to reset. The output of the timer depends on the amplitude of the external trigger pulse applied to this pin. Pin 3: Output Terminal: Output of the timer is available at this pin. There are two ways in which a load can be connected to the output terminal either between pin 3 and ground pin (pin 1) or between pin 3 and supply pin (pin 8). The load connected between pin 3 and ground supply pin is called the normally on load and that connected between pin 3 and ground pin is called the normally off load. Pin 4: Reset Terminal: To disable or reset the timer a negative pulse is applied to this pin due to which it is referred to as reset terminal. When this pin is not to be used for reset purpose, it should be connected to + VCCto avoid any possibility of false triggering.

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Pin 5: Control Voltage Terminal: The function of this terminal is to control the threshold and trigger levels. Thus either the external voltage or a pot connected to this pin determines the pulse width of the output waveform. The external voltage applied to this pin can also be used to modulate the output waveform. When this pin is not used, it should be connected to ground through a 0.01 micro Farad to avoid any noise problem. Pin 6: Threshold Terminal: This is the non-inverting input terminal of comparator 1, which compares the voltage applied to the terminal with a reference voltage of 2/3 VCC. The amplitude of voltage applied to this terminal is responsible for the set state of flip-flop. Pin 7 : Discharge Terminal: This pin is connected internally to the collector of transistor and mostly a capacitor is connected between this terminal and ground. It is called discharge terminal because when transistor saturates, capacitor discharges through the transistor. When the transistor is cut-off, the capacitor charges at a rate determined by the external resistor and capacitor. Pin 8: Supply Terminal: A supply voltage of + 5 V to + 18 V is applied to this terminal with respect to ground (pin 1).

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APPLICATIONS
monostable andastable multivibrators, dc-dc converters, digital logic probes, waveform generators, analog frequency meters and tachometers, temperature measurement and control devices, voltage regulators etc

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IMPORTANT FEATURES OF IC 555

It operates from a wide range of power supplies ranging from + 5 Volts to + 18 Volts supply voltage. Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current. The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals can be made into several minutes Proper selection of only a few external components allows timing intervals of several minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several hundred kilo hertz. It has a high current output; the output can drive TTL. It has a temperature stability of 50 ppm per degree Celsius change in temperature, or equivalently 0.005 %/ C. The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable with the maximum power dissipation per package is 600 mW and its trigger and reset inputs are logic compatible.
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ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR

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when Q is low or output VOUT is high, the discharging transistor is cut-off and the capacitor C begins charging toward VCC through resistances RA and RB. Because of this, the charging time constant is (RA + RB) C. Eventually, the threshold voltage exceeds +2/3 VCC, the comparator 1 has a high output and triggers the flip-flop so that its Q is high and the timer output is low. With Q high, the discharge transistor saturates and pin 7 grounds so that the capacitor C discharges through resistance RB with a discharging time constant RB C. With the discharging of capacitor, trigger voltage at inverting input of comparator 2 decreases. When it drops below 1/3VCC, the output of comparator 2 goes high and this reset the flip-flop so that Q is low and the timer output is high. This proves the auto-transition in output from low to high and then to low as, illustrated in fig ures. Thus the cycle repeats.

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**The time during which the capacitor C charges from 1/3 VCC to 2/3 VCC is equal to the time the output is high and is given as tc or THIGH = 0.693 (RA + RB) C, which is proved below. **Voltage across the capacitor at any instant during charging period is given as,vc=VCC(1-et/RC) The time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +1/3 VCC
1/3 VCC = t/RC VCC (1-e )

**The time taken by the capacitor to charge from 0 to +2/3 VCC t2 = RC loge 3 = 1.0986 RC So the time taken by the capacitor to charge from +1/3 VCC to +2/3 VCC tc = (t2 t1) = (10986 0.405) RC = 0.693 RC Substituting R = (RA + RB) in above equation we have THIGH = tc = 0.693 (RA + RB) C where RA and RB are in ohms and C is in farads.

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**The time during which the capacitor discharges from +2/3 VCC to +1/3 VCC is equal to the time the output is low and is given as td or TL0W = 0.693 RB C where RB is in ohms and C is in farads The above equation is worked out as follows: Voltage across the capacitor at any instant during discharging period is given as vc = 2/3 VCC e- td/ RBC Substituting vc = 1/3 VCC and t = td in above equation we have +1/3 VCC = +2/3 VCC e- td/ RBC Or td = 0.693 RBC

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**Overall period of oscillations, T = THIGH + TLOW = 0.693 (RA+ 2RB) C , The frequency of oscillations being the reciprocal of the overall period of oscillations T is given as f = 1/T = 1.44/ (RA+ 2RB)C Equation indicates that the frequency of oscillation / is independent of the collector supply voltage +VCC. Often the term duty cycle is used in conjunction with the astable multivibrator. **The duty cycle, the ratio of the time tc during which the output is high to the total time period T is given as % duty cycle, D = tc / T * 100 = (RA + RB) / (RA + 2RB) * 100

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**From the above equation it is obvious that square wave (50 % duty cycle) output can not be obtained unless RA is made zero. However, there is a danger in shorting resistance RA to zero. **With RA = 0 ohm, terminal 7 is directly connected to + VCC. During the discharging of capacitor through RB and transistor, an extra current will be supplied to the transistor from VCC through a short between pin 7 and +VCC. It may damage the transistor and hence the timer. **However, a symmetrical square wave can be obtained if a diode is connected across resistor RB. **The capacitor C charges through RA and diode D to approximately + 2/3VCC and discharges through resistor RB and terminal 7 (transistor) until the capacitor voltage drops to 1/3 VCC. Then the cycle is repeated. To obtain a square wave output, RA must be a combination of a fixed resistor R and a pot, so that the pot can be adjusted to give the exact square wave.

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a 3 terminal electronic device made of semiconductor material. Transistors have many uses, including amplification, switching, voltage regulation, and the modulation of signals

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

1.NPN Transistor Most Common Configuration 2.Base, Collector, and Emitter i.Base is a very thin region with less dopants ii.Base collector junction reversed biased iii.Base emitter junction forward biased Fluid flow analogy: i.If fluid flows into the base, a much larger fluid can flow from the collector to the emitter i.If a signal to be amplified is applied as a current to the base, a valve between the collector and emitter opens and closes in response to signal fluctuations 3.PNP Transistor essentially the same except for directionality

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NPN BJT TRANSISTORS

High potential at collector Low potential at emitter Allows current flow when the base is given a high potential

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PNP BJT TRANSISTORS

High potential at emitter Low potential at collector Allows current flow when base is connected to a low potential

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BJT MODES
Cut-off Region: VBE < VFB, iB=0
Transistor acts like an off switch

Active Linear Region: VBE=VFB, iB0, iC=iB

Transistor acts like a current amplifier

Saturation Region: VBE=VFB, iB>iC,max/

In this mode the transistor acts like an on switch

Power across BJT

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TRANSISTOR CAN ACT AS A SWITCH

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FACTORS OF HARMONICS
Point on voltage wave switching Magnitude and polarity of remnant flux Total resistance of primary winding circuit Inductance of the air core Geometry of the transformer core Maximum flux carrying capability of the core material
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MITIGATION
Over sizing fuse Series resistance insertion Ground resistor insertion Controlled closing or controlled energization or point on voltage wave switching. Soft starting
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PRINCIPLE MEANS OF DIMINISHING HARMONICS

Increase of Pulse numbers Installations of filters It is economical to use filters than increase the pulse number beyond 12 Ac filters serve the dual purpose of reducing ac harmonics and supplying reactive power. On Dc side: Dc reactor reduces harmonics with dc cables additional dc filter may not be required

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OBJECTIVE OF DESIGN OF FILTER

Limit voltage distortion Minimize losses Improve system performance Minimize reactive power imbalance

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LINE REACTOR
The input harmonic current distortion can be reduced by simple addition of input line reactance. The inductive reactance of an input line reactor allows 50 Hz or 60 Hz currents to pass easily but presents considerably higher impedance to all other harmonic frequencies. Harmonic currents are thus attenuated by the reactance offered by the line reactor. These reactors are also used to solve the problems in variable frequency drive installations. harmonic attenuation , drive tripping .The line reactors are always used in the line side or input of the variable frequency drives. Thus they are called the line reactors. The line reactors cannot be used at the output of the variable frequency drives Because the reactors are over heated due to the harmonic content of the output waveform of the VFD Harmonic compensated reactors can be used on the either side of the variable frequency drives .Due to the introduction of the Harmonic compensated reactors the following problems are eliminated: motor noise, low efficiency of the motors, temperature rise in motors and variable frequency drives short circuit problem.

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HARMONIC FILTER
In some cases, reactors alone will not be capable of reducing the harmonic current distortion to the desired levels. In these cases, a more sophisticated filter will be required. The common choices include shunt connected, tuned harmonic filters (harmonic traps) and series connected low pass filters (broad band suppressors). They consist of a capacitor and an inductor which are tuned to a single harmonic frequency. They offer very low impedance to that frequency, the specific harmonic current is supplied to the drive by the filter rather than from the power source. If tuned harmonic filters are selected as the mitigation technique, then multiple tuned filters are needed to meet the distortion limits which are imposed.

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ACTIVE FILTERS
An active filter contains an amplifier whose output is connected to its input through passive components, usually capacitors and resistors. This feedback of the output to the input allows us to build filters with imaginary poles using capacitors and resistors alone. Without feedback, a filter with imaginary poles must have both inductors and capacitors. The main purpose of active filters is to eliminate inductors and decrease the value of the filter's capacitors.
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PASSIVE FILTERS
A passive filter is one made up of inductors, capacitors, and resistors. In most cases, the only resistors in the filter are the source and load impedances. These resistors might exist in your circuit as separate resistor components, or they might be an inherent feature of the amplifier that provides the signal and the amplifier that receives the output of the filter. In the section above on filter polynomials we show how you arrive at a polynomial function of frequency that best matches your requirements. Passive filters implement these polynomial frequency responses with capacitors and inductors that interact with your source and load impedances.
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BUTTERWORTH FILTER
A Butterworth filter is the filter with maximally flat amplitude response in its pass-band. By cut-off frequency we mean the frequency at which the Butterworth filter output drops to 71% (1/2) of its maximum amplitude at lower frequencies. The Butterworth filter's maximum amplitude occurs at 0 rad/s.

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The gain of an n-order Butterworth low pass filter is given in terms of the transfer function H(s) as

where n = order of filter c = cut off frequency (approximately the -3dB frequency) is the DC gain (gain at zero frequency)
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USE OF FILTER
Each filtering technique offers specific benefits and has a different cost associated with it. Some may have the potential to interfere with the power system while others will not. For best overall results when using reactors or harmonic filters, be sure to install them as close as possible to the nonlinear loads which they are filtering. When we minimize harmonics directly at their source we will be cleaning up the internal facility mains wiring. This will also reduce the burden on upstream electrical equipment such as circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, conductors and transformers. The proper application of harmonic filtering techniques can extend equipment life and will often improve equipment reliability 42 and facility productivity.

SIMULATION RESULTS

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CONCLUSION
Inverter circuit has been designed. Harmonics measurement has been performed . THD measurement performed. Harmonic filter has been designed.

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