The hypothalamus
Hormonal (anterior portion) or nervous (posterior portion) control of the pituitary gland Hormones control secretion of hormones in the anterior pituitary
Hormones secreted and transported to anterior pituitary through hypothalamic-hypophysial vessels to pituitary sinuses Nerves Magnocellular neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus axoplasm transport of hormones from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary
Abbreviations
CRH, CRF
Dopamine
Prolactin-inhibiting hormone
DA, PIH
Gonadotropinreleasing hormone
Somatostatin
Thyrotropinreleasing hormone
TRH, TRF
parvocellular neuroendocrine stimulates anterior neurons in the pituitary to secrete paraventricular and TSH anterior hypothalamic nuclei
Special neurons in the hypothalamus synthesize and secrete the hypothalamic releasing and inhibitory hormones that control secretion of anterior pituitary These neurons originate in various parts of the hypothalamus and send their nerve fibers to the median eminence and tuber cinerreum (extension of hypothalamic tissue into the pituitary stalk) Hormones are secreted to the tissue fluids, absorbed into the hypothalamic-hypophysial portal system and transported to the sinuses of the anterior pituitary
1 cm in diameter 0.5 1 g in weight In sella turcica (bony cavity at the base of the brain Connected to the hypothalamus via pituitary stalk Parts:
Human growth hormone (hGH) affects protein formation, cell multiplication, cell differentiation Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) controls secretion of some of the adrenocortical hormones (affects metabolism of glucose, proteins and fats) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (STH) controls secretion of thyroxine and triodothyronine by the thyroid gland (controls rates of most intercellular chemical reactions of the entire body) Prolactin promotes mammary gland development and milk production Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing hormone control growth of the ovaries and testes and their hormonal and reproductive functions
Other hormones of adenohypohysis -Lipotropin (-LPH) function unknown -Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) stimulates melanin synthesis in melanocytes
Chromophobes mostly inactive cells with only few secretory granules Chromophils active secretory cells
Acidophils (stained with acidic dyes) Basophils (stained with basic dyes)
Hormones secreted hGH Prolactin ACTH TSH FSH, LH % of total secretory cells 50 10-30 10 5 20 Stain affinity Diameter of secretory granules (nm) 300-400 200 400-550 120-200 250-400
Cell type
In humans stimulate melanin synthesis in melanocytes In fish, amphibians and reptiles expand melanophores
no hormone secretion supporting structure for terminal nerve fibers and endings
Axons of secretory neurons located in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus
ADH (vasopressin)
Formed primarily in the supraoptic nuclei Regulates water excretion by the kidneys
Increases the permeability of collecting tubules and ducts to water - water reabsorption concentrated urine Osmotic regulation osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus or somewhere near
Constrict arterioles throughout the entire body Blood volume (activated when decreased blood volume) stretch (volumoreceptors) in right atrium of the heart - baroreceptors in carotid, aortic and pulmonary regions
Causes vasoconstriction
Oxytocin
Formed primarily in the paraventricular nuclei Causes contraction of the pregnant uterus
Oxytocin plasma levels increase in the last stage of labor Cervix stimulation during labor elicit nervous signals to hypothalamus and the secretion of oxytocin increases The suckling stimuli cause signals to be transmitted through sensory nerves to the oxytocin neurons in the PV and SO nuclei of the hypothalamus. Oxytocin causes contraction of myoepithelial cells around the alveoli. In less than a minute after suckling started the milk begins to flow.
Chemical structure: small protein (191 amino acids) Function: hGH enhances body protein, uses up the fat stores and conserves carbohydrates
Increases rate of protein synthesis in most cells of the body Increases mobilization of fatty acids in the blood and increases use of the fatty acids for energy Decreases rate of glucose utilization throughout the body
Enhancement of amino acid transport through the cell membrane to the interior of the cells
(more AAs available for protein synthesis)
Enhancement of RNA translation to cause protein synthesis by the ribosomes (even when
the AAs concentration are not increased)
Increase in nuclear translation of DNA to form RNA Decrease in catabolism of protein and amino acids
Causing release of fatty acids from adipose tissue (increase in fatty acid concentration in the body
fluid)
Ketogenic effect of hGH ketosis may occur when the amount of hGH is too high and causes great mobilization of fatty acids from adipose tissue that requires large amount of acetoacetic acid formed by the liver (may cause
fatty liver)
Increase in glucose production by the liver Increase in insulin secretion hGH has DIABETOGENIC EFFECT = growth hormone-induced insulin resistance attenuates insulins actions, such as:
To stimulate uptake and utilization of glucose in skeletal muscle and fat To inhibit glucose output by the liver
This leads to increase of glucose concentration in the blood and compensatory increase of insulin. Excess in hGH may cause metabolic disturbance similar to those found in patients with DM II.
Somatomedins
Secreted by the liver and other tissue based of the hGH stimulation Similar effect as insulin = IGF (insulin-like growth factors) Function: support the action of hGH (unclear is if the hGH may act without somatomedines or not) Types:
Starvation (especially with protein deficiency) Hypoglycemia low fatty acids in the blood Exercise Excitement Trauma
GHIH = Growth hormone inhibitory hormone (Somatostatin) Exogenous growth hormones Somatomedins (IGF)
Congenital Induced by tumor that destroys the gland Decrease of all or more than 1 hormone of anterior pituitary (the person does not reach sexual maturation = missing gonadal hormones) Decrease just in hGH only smaller person, but can maturate Missing somatomedins Due to: tumor or trombosis of the pituitary blood vessels Results in: hypothyroidism, decrease in glucocorticoids, suppression of gonadotropic hormones
Dwarfism
Due to: increased activity of somatotropes or tumor during development Giants have hyperglycemia (DM)
Due to: increased activity of somatotropes or tumor after puberty (after closure the epiphysal slits) Bones grow only to thickness ( enlargement of hands and feet, membranous bones such as cranium, nose, supraorbital ridges, chin etc.