CHAPTER 3:

ALTERNATING
CURRENT (AC)
CIRCUITS
PART I

1
 INTRODUCTION
• This chapter will focus on circuit analysis with
varying source voltage or current(sinusoidally).

• A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the

sine or cosine function.

• A sinusoidal current is usually referred to as

alternating current (ac).

2
 INTRODUCTION contd.

• AC is an electrical current whose magnitude and

direction vary sinusoidally with time.

• Such a current reverses at regular time intervals

and has alternately positive and negative values.

3
 INTRODUCTION contd.

• The circuits analysis is considering the time-

varying voltage source or current source.

• Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage

sources are called ac circuits.

• A sinusoid can be express in either sine or

cosine form.

4
 INTRODUCTION contd.

GENERATING AC VOLTAGE

• One way to generate an ac voltage is to rotate a

coil of wire at constant angular velocity in a
uniform magnetic field.

• The magnitude of the resulting voltage is

proportional to the rate at which flux lines are
cut.

5
INTRODUCTION contd.

6
 WAVEFORM TERMS & DEFINITIONS
• The definitions for all terms are stated as below,

– Period – the time taken to complete a cycle, T (s)

– Peak value – the maximum instantaneous value

measured from its zero value, Vp @ Vm (V)

– Peak-to-peak value – the maximum variation between

the maximum positive instantaneous value and the
maximum negative value, Vp-p (V)

7
WAVEFORM TERMS & DEFINITIONS contd.

8
 SINUSOIDS
• Consider the expression of a sinusoidal voltage

v (t )  Vm sin t
where

Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid

 = the angular frequency in radians/s
t = the argument of the sinusoid

9
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• The sinusoid repeats itself every T seconds, thus

T is called the period of the sinusoid or the time
taken to complete one cycle. (s)

10
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• The number of cycles per second is called

frequency, f. (Hz)
1
f 
T

• Angular frequency, ω. (rad/s)

  2 f

• An important value of the sinusoidal function is its

RMS (root-mean-square) value.
Vm
VRMS   Vdc
2
11
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• Note: Radian measure

– ω is usually expressed in radian/s
– 2π radians = 360°
– to convert from degrees to radians, multiply by π/180°.
– to convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 180°/π.

• From the general expression of the sinusoidal

voltage, we can find the value of voltage at any
given instant of time.

12
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• If the waveform does not pass through zero at

t=0, it has a phase shift.

• For a waveform shifted left,

v (t )  Vm sin  t   

• For waveform shifted right,

v (t )  Vm sin  t   

where
 = phase angle of the sinusoid function
13
SINUSOIDS contd.

14
 SINUSOIDS contd.
Example:
2. Find the amplitude, phase, period and
frequency of the sinusoid
v (t )  12sin  50t  10 
Solution:

Amplitude, Vm = 12V
Phase,  = 10˚
Angular frequency, ω = 50rad/s
2 2
thus the period, T =   0.1257s
 50
1
The frequency, f =  7.958Hz
T 15
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• A sinusoidal voltage is given by the expression

V = 300 cos (120πt + 30°).
a) What is the frequency in Hz?
b) What is the period of the voltage in miliseconds?
c) What is the magnitude of V at t = 2.778ms?
d) What is the RMS value of V?

Solution:
a) Given ω = 120π = 2πf, thus f = 60Hz
b) T = 1/f = 16.67ms
c) V = V = 300 cos (120πx2.778m + 30°)
= 300 cos (60° + 30°) = 0V
d) Vrms = 300/√2 = 212.13V
16
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• Consider the following:

v1(t )  Vm sin t v 2 (t )  Vm sin  t   

17
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• The v2 is occurred first in time.

• Thus it can be said that v2 leads v1 by  or v1

lags v2 by  .

• If
 ≠ 0 we can say v and v are out of phase.
1 2


• If = 0 we can say v1 and v2 are in phase.

• v1 and v2 scan be compared in this manner

because they operate at the same frequency (do
not need to have the same amplitude).

18
 SINUSOIDS contd.

• Transformation between cosine and sine form

sin A  cos( A  90)

cos A  sin( A  90)

Converting from negative to positive magnitude

 sin A  sin( A  180)

 cos A  cos( A  180)

where A  t  
19
 SINUSOIDS contd.

Example:
• For the following sinusoidal voltage, find the
value v at t = 0s and t = 0.5s.

v = 6 cos (100t + 60˚)

Solution:

at t = 0s at t = 0.5s
v = 6 cos (0+60˚) v = 6 cos (50 rads +60˚)
= 3V = 4.26V

Note: both ωt and  must be in same unit before adding them up.
20
 SINUSOIDS contd.

1. Calculate the phase angle between

v1 = -10 cos (ωt + 50°)
v2 = 12 sin (ωt - 10°)
State which sinusoid is leading.

Solution:

In order to compare v1 and v2, we must express them in

the same form (either in cosine or sine function) with
positive magnitude. Note: the value of  must be
between 0° to ±180°

v1 = -10 cos (ωt + 50°) = 10 cos (ωt + 50° - 180°)

= 10 cos (ωt - 130°)

21
 SINUSOIDS contd.

and
v2 = 12 sin (ωt - 10°) = 12 cos (ωt - 10° - 90°)
= 12 sin (ωt - 100°)

the equation v2 can be written in the following form

v2 = 12 sin (ωt - 130° + 30°)

‘+30°’ in the above expression means v2 leads v1 by 30°

22
 PHASORS
• Sinusoid can be express in terms of phasors,
which are more convenient to work with than
sine and cosine functions.

• A phasors is a complex number that can be

represents the amplitude and the phase of a
sinusoid.

• Recall:
Complex number can be written in:
a) Rectangular form:
z = x + jy

23
 PHASORS contd.

where j  1 ; x is the real part of z and y is

the imaginary part of z.

• Polar form:
z  r 
• Exponential form:
j
z  re
where r is the magnitude of z and  is the phase of
z.

24
 PHASORS contd.

• The relationship between the rectangular form

and the polar form is shown below:

25
 PHASORS contd.

• Form Figure 9.6

y
r  x y2 2
;   tan 1

x
or
x  r cos  ; y  r sin 

Thus, z may be written as

z  x  jy  r   r cos   j  r sin  

Note: addition and subtraction of complex number better perform in

rectangular form. Multiplication and division in polar form.
26
 PHASORS contd.

• Basic properties of complex number:

Addition: z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2) + j(y1 + y2)

subtraction: z1 - z2 = (x1 - x2) + j(y1 - y2)

multiplication: z1z2  r1r 2   1  2 

z1 r1
division:    1  2 
z2 r 2
1 1
reciprocal:     
z r

27
 PHASORS contd.

Square root: z  r    2

Complex conjugate: z *  x  jy  r      re  j

1
note:  j
j

j  1

28
 PHASORS contd.

• As we know, the sinusoidal voltage can be

represented in sine or cosine function.

• First, consider the cosine function as in:

v (t )  Vm cos  t   

• This expression is in time domain.

• In phasor method, we no longer consider in time

domain instead in phasor domain (also known as
frequency domain).

29
 PHASORS contd.

• The cosine function will be represented in phasor

and complex number such as:

v (t )  Vm cos  t   
 Vm 
 Vm cos   j  Vm sin  

• For example:
Transform the sinusoid:
v(t) = 12 cos (377t - 60˚)

thus, V  12  60 or 6  j10.39

30
 PHASORS contd.

• The phasor representation carries only the

amplitude and phase angle information.

• The frequency term is dropped since we know

that the frequency of the sinusoidal response is
the same as the source.

• The cosine expression is also dropped since we

know that the response and source are both
sinusoidal.

31
 PHASORS contd.

• Sinusoid-phasor transformation:

Vm cos  t     Vm 
Vm sin  t     Vm     90 
Im cos  t     Im 
Im sin  t     Im     90 

32
 PHASORS contd.

• The phasor can be represented by a phasor

diagram as shown below.

• Once a sinusoidal voltage or current is

represented in its phasor form, simple arithmetic
operation can be done.

33
 PHASORS contd.

• After performing the arithmetic operations, the

phasor form can then be inverse back to the time
domain form.

Vm   Vm cos  t   

the ω of the response is the same as the source.

34
 PHASORS contd.

Example:
Given y1 = 20 cos (100t - 30°) and y2 = 40 cos (100t + 60°).
Express y1 + y2 as a single cosine function.

Solution:
In phasor form
y1  20  30 & y 2  4060
 y1  y 2  20  30  4060
 17.31  j 10  20  j 34.64
 37.32  j 24.64
 44.7233.4

Thus, y1 +y2 = 44.72 cos (100t + 33.4°)

35
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR
DOMAIN
• Circuit analysis is much simpler if it is done in
phasor domain.

• In order to perform the phasor domain analysis,

we need to transform all circuit elements to its
phasor equivalent.

• Transform from time domain to frequency

domain.

• For sinusoidal sources, phasor transform will

make the source eligible to enter the phasor
domain. 36
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

IMPEDANCE

• To analyze the circuit in ac domain, first we have

to convert all the resistance, inductance and
capacitance into impedance, Z or admittance, Y.

• Impedance, Z is the ratio of the phasor voltage V

to the phasor current, I.

V
Z or V  ZI
I
where
V  Vm V & I  Im I
37
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

• Z is a complex number and measured in

ohms(Ω).

• As a complex quantity, Z can be express in

rectangular form,

Z = R + jX

where R = resistance (real part of Z)

X = reactance (imaginary part of Z)

• Reactance can be positive or negative. If:

– X is positive – the impedance is inductive
– X is negative – the impedance is capacitive
38
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

• Example:
– Impedance Z = R + jX is said to be inductance or
lagging since current lags voltage.
– Impedance Z = R – jX is said to be capacitive or leading
since current leads voltage.

• The impedance, Z can also be expressed in polar

form,
Z  Z 
where
X
Z  2
R X 2
;   tan 1

R
and
R  Z cos  ; X  Z sin 
39
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

ADMITTANCE

• It is sometimes convenient to work with the

reciprocal of impedance, known as admittance.

• Admittance, Y is the ratio of the phasor current

through it to the phasor voltage across it.

• Y is measured in siemens (S).

1 I
Y 
Z V
40
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

• Y can also be written in rectangular form,

Y = G + jB

where G = conductance (real part of Y)

B = susceptance (imaginary part of Y)

• Or
1
Y
Z
1
G  jB 
R  jX
41
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

IMPEDANCE FOR RESISTOR

• In phasor domain, impedance

Z=R

• Voltage-current relationship is
given by
V = IZ

42
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

• In phasor diagram,

• From the figure it shows that voltage and current

are in phase.

43
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

IMPEDANCE FOR INDUCTOR

• In phasor domain, the impedance

ZL = jXL
= jωL
= j2πfL

where L is the value of an inductor.

• Voltage-current relationship is
given by
V = IZ
= I(jωL)
44
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

• In phasor diagram,

• From the figure it shows that voltage leads

current by 90° or current lags voltage by 90°.

45
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

IMPEDANCE FOR CAPACITOR

• In phasor domain, the impedance

ZC = -jXC
= -j/(ωC)
= 1/(jωC)
= 1/(j2πfC)

where C is the value of an capacitor.

• Voltage-current relationship is
given by

V = IZ
= I/(jωC)
46
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

• In phasor diagram,

• From the figure it shows that current leads

voltage by 90° or voltage lags current by 90°.

47
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

ELEMENT RESISTANCE REACTANCE IMPEDANCE ADMITTANCE VOLTAGE

R R 0 Z=R Y = 1/R V = RI

L 0 XL = ωL ZL = jXc = jωL Y = 1/ jωL V = jωLI

ZC = -jXc V=
C 0 XC = 1/ωC Y = jωC
= -j/ωC I/jωC

48
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

EXAMPLE:

• A current in the 75mH inductor is 4 cos (40000t

- 38°)mA. Calculate
a) The inductive reactance
b) The impedance of the inductor
c) The phasor voltage
d) The steady-state expression of v(t)

Solution:
• Inductance reactance, XL = ωL =
40000(75mH) = 3000Ω

• Impedance ZL = jωL = j40000(75mH) =

j3000Ω 49
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

a) Phasor voltage,
V = IZ
 (4 x103   38)( j3000)
 1252

g) Steady-state expression,

v(t) = 12 cos (40000t + 52°)V

50
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

2) Find v(t) and i(t).

51
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

From the voltage source 10 cos 4t, ω = 4,

VS  100

The impedance is
1 1
Z 5 5  5  j2.5
j C j 4(0.1)

Hence the current

VS 100 100
I   
Z 5  j2.5 5.5902  26.5651
 1.788826.5651 A
52
 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS IN PHASOR DOMAIN contd.

The voltage across the capacitor is

I 1.788826.5651
V  IZC    4.4720  63.4349V
jC j 4(0.1)

In time domain,
i(t) = 1.7888 cos (4t + 26.5651°)A
v(t) = 4.4720 cos (4t – 63.4349°)V

53
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS IN THE
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
• In phasor domain:
– Recall:
KVL – states that the algebraic sum of phasor voltages
around a loop is zero.
KCL – states that the algebraic sum of phasor currents
at a node is zero.

• This principles used in dc analysis, are also

applicable in the phasor domain.

• The difference is simply the voltages, currents

and resistance/inductance/capacitance are
converted to phasor and impedance.
54
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN contd.

Example:
Four branches terminate at a common node. The
reference direction of each branch current (i1, i2, i3
and i4) is toward the node. If i1= 100 cos(ωt + 25°),
i2 = 100 cos(ωt + 145°), i3 = 100 cos(ωt - 95°), i4 =
100 cos (ωt - 95°). Find i4.

Solution:
By using the phasor concept, I1 = 100 25°, I2 =
100 145°, I3 = 100 -95°. Applying KCL,

I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = 0
100 25° + 100 145° + 100 -95° + I4 = 0 55
 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS IN THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN contd.

90.63+j42.26 – 81.92+j57.36 – 8.72-j99.62 + I4=0

I4 = 0

56