Automotive Electronics From Herman Casier

Electronic Circuits
in an
Automotive Environment

Herman Casier
AMI Semiconductor Belgium
herman_casier@amis.com
2004 11 29 AID-EMC / HC / Electronic Circuits in an Automotive Environment
slide: 2

Outline 1
Introduction
Automotive Market and trends
Characteristics of Electronics in a car
Automotive Electronics Challenges
Cost and Time To Market
Quality and Safety
Quality requirements
Safety requirements
DFMEA
slide: 3

Outline 2
High Voltage : the car battery
History of the car battery
Why switching over to 42V PowerNet
Specifications of car-batteries
Example: lamp-failure detector
Example: high-side driver
High Temperature requirements
Temperature range specification
Functionality and reliability limits
Diode leakage currents
Example: bandgap circuit
Example: SC-circuit
slide: 4

Outline 3
EMC general
Definition of EMC
Compliance and pre-compliance tests
EMC standards
EMC standards in IC-design
EME Electro Magnetic Emission
1O/150O test method
EME what happens?
EME how to cope with?
Example: digital circuit current peaks
Example: CANH differential output
slide: 5

Outline 4
EMS Electro Magnetic Susceptibility
DPI Direct Power Injection method
EMS compliance levels
EMS what happens?
EMS how to cope with?
Example: rectification of single ended signal
Example: rectification of differential signal
Example: substrate currents in ESD diodes
Types of substrate currents
Example: jumper detection
slide: 6

Outline 5
Automotive transients (ISO-7637)
(sometimes called Schaffner pulses)
Transient pulse definitions
Transient pulses what happens?
Example: supply & low-side driver
Example: bandgap circuit
Acknowledgments
References
slide: 7

Trends in automotive
> 1920 + pneumatic systems low high technical skills
+ hydraulic systems low driving skills
> 1950 + electric systems increasing good technical skills
increasing driving skills
> 1980 + electronic systems congestion low technical skills
+ optronic systems starts high driving skills
> 2010 + nanoelectronics congested very low technical skills
+ biotronic systems optimization decreasing driving skills
starts
> 2040 + robotics maximal and no technical skills
+ nanotechnology optimized no driving skills
CAR Technology TRAFFIC DRIVER SKILLS
> 1891 mechanical system very low very high technical skills
slide: 8

Automotive Electronics
Phase 1: Introduction of Electronics
in non-critical applications
Driver information and entertainment
e.g. radio,
Comfort and convenience
e.g. electric windows, wiper/washer, seat heating, central
locking, interior light control
Low intelligence electronic systems
Minor communication between systems
(pushbutton control)
No impact on engine performance
No impact on driving & driver skills
slide: 9

Phase 2: Electronics support critical applications
Engine optimization:
e.g. efficiency improvement & pollution control
Active and Passive Safety
e.g. ABS, ESP, airbags, tire pressure, Xenon lamps
e.g. radio-CD-GPS, parking radar, service warnings
Comfort, convenience and security:
e.g. airco, cruise control, keyless entry, transponders
Increasingly complex and intelligent electronic systems
Communication between electronic systems within the car
Full control of engine performance
No control of driving & driver skills
But reactive correction of driver errors.
Electronics impact remains within the car
slide: 10

Phase 3: Electronics control critical applications
Full Engine control
e.g. start/stop cycles, hybrid vehicles
Active and Passive Safety
e.g. X by wire, anti-collision radar, dead-angle radar
e.g. traffic congestion warning, weather and road conditions
Comfort and convenience
Very intelligent and robust electronics
Communication between internal and external systems
Information exchange with traffic network
Full control of engine performance
Control of driving and (decreasing) driving skills
Proactive prevention of dangerous situations inside
and around the car
Full control of car and immediate surroundings
slide: 11

Phase 4: Fully Automatic Driver (1
st
generation)
Traffic network takes control of the macro
movements (upper layers) of the car
Automatic Driver executes control of the car and
immediate surroundings (lower and physical layers)
ADAM : Automatic Driver for Auto-Mobile
or EVA : Elegant Vehicle Automat
Driver has become the Passenger for the complete
or at least for most of the journey
Driver might still be necessary if
ADAM becomes an Anarchistic Driver And Madman
or EVA becomes an Enraged Vehicle Anarchist
slide: 12

Automotive Drivers
Safety (FMEA)
level 1: remains in-spec in Harsh environment
Increasing Complexity
more functions and more intelligence : makes
the car system more transparant for the driver
Increasing Accuracy
More, higher performance sensors : cheapest
sensors require most performance
Low cost and Time-To-Market (of course)
Legislation
slide: 13

Automotive ICs
HBIMOS (2.0m) I2T (0.7m) I3T (0.35m)
slide: 14

Technology Evolution
Feature size trend versus year of market introduction
for mainstream CMOS and for 80-100V automotive technologies
2000 2010 1990 1980
0.1
1.0
10
Technology Node
(m)
BIMOS-7m
SBIMOS-3m
HBIMOS-2m
I
2
T-0.7m
I
3
T-0.35m
CMOS
Year of Market Introduction
slide: 15

Introduction
Top automotive vehicle manufacturers (2000)
(top 14 manufacturers account for 87% of worldwide production)
Source: Automotive News Datacenter - 2001

Suzuki
3,0%
Mitsubishi
2,8%
BMW
1,7%
Others
13,5%
Renault
4,1%
Honda
4,2%
Fiat
4,6%
Nissan
4,4%
Hyundai
4,2%
PSA group
4,7%
GM
14,2%
Ford
12,4%
Toyota
9,9%
VW group
8,6%
Daimler-
Chrysler
7,8%
slide: 16

Introduction
Automotive electronic
equipment revenue forecast

CAGR = 6.6% (20022006)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
2003 2004 2005 2006
B
$
Other Auto
Remote/Keyless Entry
Climate Control unit
Airbags
Dashboard Instr.
Auto Stereo
GPS
ABS
Engine Control units
0
5
10
15
20
25
2003 2004 2005 2006
B
$
Automotive semiconductor
consumption forecast

CAGR = 13.2% (20022006)
Source : Dataquest December 2002
slide: 17

Introduction
Total semiconductor market (US$B)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Military/Aero (3%)
CAGR=8% (2002-06)
Industrial (7%)
CAGR=12% (2002-06)
Automotive (8%)
CAGR=13% (2002-06)
Consumer (17%)
CAGR=15% (2002-06)
Communications (24%)
CAGR=14% (2002-06)
Data Processing (41%)
CAGR=12% (2002-06)
Source : Dataquest November 2002
slide: 18

Introduction
Interior Light System
Auto toll Payment
Rain sensor
Dashboard controller
Automated
Cruise Control
Light failure control
Information
Navigation
Entertainment
Head Up Display
Engine:

Injection control

Injection monitor

Oil Level Sensing

Air Flow
Headlight:
Position control
Power control
Failure detection
Brake Pressure

Airbag Sensing &Control
Seat control:
Position/Heating
Key transponder
Door module
Keyless entry

Central locking
Throttle control
Valve Control
E-gas
Suspension control
LED brake light
Compass
Stability Sensing
Power Window Sensor
Backup Sensing
Gearbox: Position control
Where do we find electronics in a car
slide: 19

Introduction
Electronics are distributed all over the car-body
Distributed supply used for both power drivers
and low power control systems
direct battery supply for the modules: high-
voltage with large variation
Trend: Battery voltage from 12V 42V
large supply transients due to interferences of
high-power users switching or error condition
(load-dump)
Trend: comparable supply transients, lower load-
dump transient
slide: 20

Introduction
Modules, distributed over the car-body have to
comply with stringent EMC and ESD
low EME to other modules and external world
low EMS (high EMI) for externally and internally
generated fields
High ESD and system-ESD requirements
Trend: increasing EMC frequency and EMC field
strength for the module.
Trend: increasing ESD voltages and power
Trend: more integration brings the module border
closer to the chip border : the chip has to comply
with higher EMC field strengths and ESD power.
slide: 21

Introduction
Modules on all locations in the car, close to
controlled sensors and actuators
large temperature range: - 40 +150C ambient
Trend: increasing ambient temperature
Critical car-functions controlled by electronics
Safety & reliability very important
Trend: increasing safety and reliability
requirements
Communication speed and reliability
Trend: higher speed, lower/fixed latency, higher
reliability and accident proof communications
slide: 22

Introduction
Many modules interface with cheap (large
offset, low linearity) and low-power sensors
High accuracy and programmability of sensor
interface: sensitivity, linearization, calibration
Trend: increasing sensor interface accuracy,
speed and programmability with higher
interference rejection and more intelligence
SOC-type semiconductors in module
Lower cost mandates single chip
Trend: increasing intelligence requires state-of-
the-art technology with high-voltage (80V), higher
temperature (175C ambient) and higher
interference rejection (EMC, ESD) capabilities
slide: 23

Automotive
IC design
Automotive Electronics Challenges
EMC &
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 24

Cost & Time To Market
The automotive market is very cost driven :
Bill of Materials and Cost of Ownership
more important than component cost

Time To Market is quite long : start design
to production is typically 2 3 yrs

but Time To Market is in fact Time to OEM
qualification slot which is not flexible
Prestudy, design, redesign : typ 12 18 month
Automotive IC qualification : typ 3 4 month
OEM qualification : typ 6 12 month
The start of the OEM qualification is a very
hard deadline
slide: 25

Outline
Automotive
IC design
EMC &
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High
Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 26

Quality and Safety
Required reliability ?
Most cars actually drive less than 10.000hrs
over the cars lifespan of 10 15 years
Most electronics also only functioning during
10.000hrs but some are powered for > 10years
High reliability requirements : 1ppm
for production reasons (low infant mortality)
for safety reasons and long lifetime (failure rate).
Implications
Design : 6 sigma approach
Test: high test coverage (digital and analog),
test at different temperatures
IDDQ, Vstress for early life-time failures
Packaging : high reliability
slide: 27

Quality and Safety
Safety requirements ?
If a problem affects the performance, the
circuit/module functionality must remain safe
(predictable behavior).
Problems: circuit/system failure, EMC
disturbance, car-crash (within limits)
Non-vital functions may become inoperable until
the problem disappears
Vital parts must remain functional
Implications
Fault tolerant system set-up
Worst Case Design including EMC disturbance
DFMEA (Design Failure Mode and Effect Analysis)
slide: 28

DFMEA
What : Failure Mode and Effect Analysis is a
disciplined analysis/method of identifying
potential or known failure modes and providing
follow-up and corrective actions before the first
production run occurs. (D.H. Stamatis)
Why : avoid the natural tendency to underestimate
what can go wrong
FMEA extends from subcircuit to component to
system and assembly and to service, where each
FMEA is an input for the next level.
Design FMEA (DFMEA) concerns the component
design level.
slide: 29

DFMEA
FMEA does not include prototypes and samples
because up to that point, modifications are part of
the development.
It is good practice though to include DFMEA
already in the prestudy for its large implications
on the final circuit
In the automotive industry, a standardized form
and procedure has been published by AIAG
The header is not standardized and contains the
design project references, the DFMEA version
control, team and the authorization signatures.
The second part includes the mandatory items
slide: 30

DFMEA
Mandatory items for the DFMEA
Functional block
Identification number
Circuit part and Design function
e.g. input CLCK_in, Schmitt-trigger function
Actual state of the circuit (I)
Potential failure mode
e.g. no hysteresis or hysteresis in one direction only
Potential effect of failure
e.g. oscillation of clock signal
[S] Severity of the failure: rank 1 10
e.g. 8 : critical failure: product inoperable

slide: 31

DFMEA
Mandatory items for the DFMEA (II)
Actual state of the circuit (II)
Potential cause of failure
e.g. Metal 1 crack
[O] likelihood of Occurrence of failure: rank 1 10
e.g. 5 : medium number of failures likely
Preventive and Detection methods
e.g. digital test of input does not include hysteresis
[D] likelihood of Detection of failure: rank 1 10
e.g. 7 : low effectiveness of actual detection method
[RPN] Risk Priority Number: [RPN] = [O] x [S] x [D]
e.g. 280 : high value : corrective action required
slide: 32

DFMEA
Mandatory items for the DFMEA (III)
Corrective action
recommended corrective action
e.g. include hysteresis test in test-program
Responsible Area or Person and Completion Date
e.g. test engineer NN, wk 0324
Corrected state of the circuit
Corrective action taken
e.g. testprogram version B1A
[O] : Revised Occurrence rank e.g. 8 (unchanged)
[S] : Revised Severity rank e.g. 5 (unchanged)
[D] : Revised Detection rank
e.g. 1 : effect measured by standard test program
[RPN] : Revised Risk Priority Number e.g. 40
slide: 33

DFMEA example
slide: 34

DFMEA example
slide: 35

Outline
Automotive
IC design
EMC &
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 36

High Voltage : the car-battery
Some History
~ 1955: 12 Volt battery introduced for cranking
large & high compression V8 engines
1994: workshops in USA and Europe to define
the architecture for a future automotive
electrical system.
1995: study at MIT for the optimal system.
the highest possible DC voltage is best.
1996: future nominal voltage = 42 Volt
multiple of low-cost lead-acid battery
below 60 Volt under all conditions
(60V = shock-hazard protection limit for DC voltages)
slide: 37

The car-battery
March 24, 1997: Daimler-Benz presents the
Draft Specification of a Dual Voltage
Vehicle electrical Power System 42V/14V
is the de-facto standard since it is
supported by the > 50 consortium
members (http://www.mitconsortium.org)
The name:

42V = 3 X 12 V Lead-Acid Battery
nominal operating voltage of a 12Volt battery is 14 Volt
slide: 38

The car-battery
Example of a dual voltage power system 14V/42V
The system can be equipped with two batteries or with one
main battery (14V or 42V) and a smaller backup battery for
safety applications
slide: 39

The car-battery
Forecast of the 42V vehicle share in relation
to the overall vehicle production in Europe
slide: 40

The car-battery
Why switching over to 42Volt battery ?
Electrical power consumption in a car rises
beyond the capabilities of a 12Volt battery.
Limit for 14V generator power ~ 3kW
Mean power consumption of a luxury car ~ 1.1kW
(corresponds to ~ 1,5l/100km fuel in urban traffic)
The required power for all installed applications
in luxury cars already exceeds the generator
capability.
New applications e.g. ISG (Integrated-Starter-
Generator), X-by-wire, require much higher power
slide: 41

The car-battery
Alternator efficiency increases from 50% to
75% or more and creates smaller load-dump
pulse (voltage supply pulse when the alternator
runs at full power and the battery is disconnected)
New power hungry systems possible
Electro mechanical or hydraulic brakes
Electric water pumps
Stop-start system: Integrates Starter and
Generator in a single unit (ISG).
Electromechanical engine valve actuators

slide: 42

The car-battery
Most existing systems benefit from 42V
Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
Engine cooling (eliminates belts)
Electromechanic gear shifting
..
Some systems still require 14V
Incandescent ligtbulbs
Low-power electronic modules
Existing high-volume modules because of
redesign, qualification and production costs
slide: 43

The car-battery
Specification of the 42V battery

slide: 44

The car-battery
Other specifications
Battery reversal: no destruction
- non-continuous, small voltage for 42V
- continuous, full battery voltage for 12V systems
Short drops: reset may occur
30V 16V / 100msec at 16V / 16V 30V
Slow increase/decrease: no unexpected behavior
48V 0V @ -3V/min. & 0V 48V @ +3V/min
Voltage drop test: reset behaves as expected
42V 30V 21V 30V 20.5V 30V 20V
and so on to 30V 0.5V 30V 0V.
Electric modules see this car-battery voltage,
which is further disturbed by conductive
transients (ISO7637) and by ESD pulses.
slide: 45

The car-battery
Example specification
of the current 12V battery
slide: 46

The car-battery
Translation of the 42V battery specification
into an 80V Technology requirement
slide: 47

Example
Lamp-failure
detector
Directly connected
to the car-battery
Sense inputs can
be above or below
VDDA
V(Rsense)
detection Accuracy
< 10mV
Output: low voltage
CMOS levels
slide: 48

Example
Lamp
Switch
Rsense
Fuse Vbatt
ESD
prot.
Schaffner
protection
Comp.
Level
shifter
AV
generator
CMOS
logic
slide: 49

Example
Solution based on the low impedance of the source:
the comparator and level shifter extract their supply
from the sensor input.
ESD protection of the input with automotive-transient
(Schaffner) resistant zener diodes (BV
CES
> 80V)
Protection for automotive transients (Schaffner) of all
points connected to the car-battery by relative high
value polysilicon resistors.
Resistors limit current during transient spikes
Floating resistors can handle positive and negative spikes
Accuracy not impacted if AI
b
xR
poly
<< 1mV
Adaptive AV generator
slide: 50

Example
High-Side Driver for external NDMOS
D D D D
D D D D
D
D
Vcc
Vbatt
Ain
Aout
full swing inverter
D D
D D
D D
D D
D
OSC.
Vcc
Vbatt
OFF ON
external
NDMOS
Cext
LOAD
charge pump with
full swing invertor
ON / OFF level shifters
with slew rate control
slide: 51

Example
High-side driver for external NDMOS
Simple Dixon charge pump
High voltage diodes
Tank-voltage controlled by Vcc-regulator
Uses a full-swing inverter (separate schematic)
External tank capacitor
ON / OFF control logic
Controlled charge and discharge current
controlled slew rate for minimum EME
Bleeding resistors for low power and high temp.
Simplified schematic:
no protection circuits except Vgs-zener for NDMOS
no flyback & no important ground-shift between IC
and Load : NDMOS cannot go below substrate
slide: 52

Outline
Automotive
IC design
EMC &
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 53

High Temperature
Temperature Range Specifications
Low temperatures :
Environment e.g. Nordic countries, Alaska
Typical specification: - 50degC - 40degC
High temperatures :
Engine compartiment, brakes, lamps
e.g. engine switch-off stops cooling and engine
heat distributes. Engine restart however must
work correctly
Typical specifications for Automotive ICs today :
125 150degC ambient with short peaks up to
170 200degC. (power devices go higher)
Requirements are increasing.
slide: 54

High Temperature Requirements
T4: Temperature extremes in accordance with
SAE J1211 (510% of 700012000 hours lifetime)

Temperature zones
and % of total operation time
in each temperature zone
Mounting zone Module description
T1 (5%) T2 (20%) T3 (65%) T4 (10%)
Temperate zone, thermally
isolated
- 40 C 25 C 60 C 85 C
Splash wall - 40 C 25 C 90 C 140 C
Attached to the engine or
attached to the gearbox
- 40 C 25 C 95 C 150 C
Engine
Compartiment
Throttle valve, close to the
exhaust
- 40 C 25 C 120 C 205 C
Locations exposed to heat
sources
- 40 C 25 C 90 C 120 C
Chassis
Near breaks or hydraulics - 40 C 25 C 105 C 175 C
Dashboard, hat rack - 40 C 25 C 60 C 110 C
Cabin
Roof under strong sun
exposure
- 40 C 25 C 90 C 115 C

Source: A.Blessing, AEC
Workshop Nashville 2004
slide: 55

High temperature limitations
Functionality of on-chip components ?
Bulk silicon can be used up to ~ 200 250degC.
(with appropriate design techniques)
Below the intrinsic temperature of the lowest doped
regions (~200degC for 100V, ~250degC for 5V techno).
The MOS transistor remains a transistor,
but with decreasing Vt and decreasing mobility
increasing sub-threshold leakage
increasing area
Diffusion and poly-resistors remain resistors
Thin oxide capacitors remain capacitors
Junction diodes remain diodes but the leakage
current goes up drastically.
SOI can be used up to ~ 250 300degC
GaAs can be used up to ~ 500degC
slide: 56

Reliability of components and package
(most important limitations only)
Electromigration limits decrease
use wider metals and more VIAs
area increase of power devices.
Diffusion of silicon into aluminum
using an Al/Si metallization extends the limit
e.g. 1% Si 99% Al alloy extends this to ~ 500degC.
Die attach
not important below 200degC.
use selected epoxies
slide: 57

Reliability of components and package (II)
Wire bonding: the dominant failure mechanism
Chemical: inter-metallic growth and void-formation
increases the bondpad/bondwire contact resistance
Very dependent on the type of plastic and the ionic
contamination of the plastic.
Thermo-mechanical: delamination of bondpad and
bondwire due to stress.
Very dependent on the stress characteristics of
plastic, the type of package and the size of chip.
Plastic encapsulation: depolymerization of the
epoxy is closely linked to wire bond failure.
New (green) packages are improved
Low stress (delamination)
Low ion impurity and ion catching (voids)
slide: 58

Conclusions
Reliability decreases according to the
Arrhenius-law
reliability typically decreases by 2 for every 10degC
Wire bonding in a plastic package is the
limiting factor for high temperature operation
current limit in production ~ 150degC for 10.000 hrs.
Diode leakage currents are the main
limitations in circuit design.
Affect biasing and matching in low-power circuits
Can give rise to latch-up
kT E
A
e R T R

=
0
) (
slide: 59

Diode Leakage current
Leakage current mechanisms
Moderate temperatures: Drift current ~ n
i

leakage current dominated by thermal generation
of electron-hole pairs in the depletion region
High temperatures : Diffusion current ~ n
i
2

leakage current dominated by minority carrier
generation in the neutral region
In a single well technology is the PMOS leakage
current (n-well to SP-drain) much lower than the
NMOS leakage current (Epi to SN-drain)
Higher n-well doping less minority carriers
n-well much thinner than epi less carriers
Hole mobility lower than electron mobility
In a twin well is the difference much smaller
slide: 60

Diode Leakage current
Junction area 4 X 20m
Epi doping: NA=10e15/cm3
Nwell doping: ND=4x10e16/cm3
(P. de Jong - JSSC-vol 33, dec 1998)
Nwell, 1.2 m CMOS technology
junction areas shown in the figure
(I. Finvers - JSSC-vol 30, Feb 1995)
slide: 61

Example : bandgap circuit
NPN collector-substrate diode:
bad N+/EPI diode, large area :
leakage ~ 50 nA @ 150degC/unit.
E.g. for n=8 & 3.5A/ NPN branch
10% error in current matching
without extra transistor.
6.5% bandgap voltage rise.
PMOS mirror, Drain/Bulk diodes:
good diode with small area and
balanced leakage no mismatch
PMOS bulk/epi diode leakage
subtracted from the PDMOS
current source excess current.
NDMOS body/drain leakage in
parallel with grounded current
source. Drain/substrate leakage
extracted from supply.
High voltage, low
power bandgap
slide: 62

Example : SC circuit
Leakage currents:
OpAmp inputs:
Gate Tunneling
Switches:
Sub-threshold leakage
Drain/Bulk junction
leakage
Gate/Drain tunneling
Impact Ionisation
GIDL
Capacitor plate leakage
e.g. C2=2pF, 1nA leakage,
500V/sec CM droop
Switched Capacitor
Circuit: the leakage
sensitive points are
the OpAmp input
nodes in Hold mode.
slide: 63

Outline
Automotive
IC design
EMC &
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High
Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 64

EMC : Definition
Definition (UK Defense Standard 59-41)
Electro Magnetic Compatibility is the ability of
electrical and electronic equipments, subsystems and
systems to share the electromagnetic spectrum and
perform their desired functions without unacceptable
degradation from or to the specified electromagnetic
environment.
In other words:
The Electro Magnetic Emission (EME) must be low
enough, not to disturb the environment
The Electro Magnetic Susceptibility (EMS) must be
low enough, not to be disturbed by the environment

slide: 65

EMC : Examples
EMS examples
Unwanted but not safety critical
Car-radio, GPS
Safety-critical systems
require full in-spec functionality during EMC
ABS system, airbag system, Motor control
EME examples
Unwanted EME sources
switching of heavy or inductive loads: lamps, start-
motor, ignition
fast switching circuits: digital circuits
Wanted EME sources
mobile phones, CB transmitters, radio stations :
slide: 66

EMC : Compliance tests
Compliance tests have been standardized
between the car-manufacturers, their
suppliers and the government.
Every car must pass these tests before it is
allowed on the road

Examples:
Anechoic Chamber
tests (600-700 V/m)

Environment tests
(radio station)

..
slide: 67

EMC : Pre-Compliance tests
The later EMC problems are detected, the more
difficult the identification of the root-cause and the
more limited and expensive the solution.
At final car qualification level, many modules could
cause the EMC problem and there is no time for a
redesign. The only solution is adding extra shielding
and anti-interference components like chokes, coils,
capacitors, which is very expensive.
At module qualification level, the PCB layout can be
changed and extra components (chokes, coils, caps)
can be added. This has less impact on the bill of
materials but can impact the time to qualification slot.
It is mandatory to include EMC in all phases of the
development : ICs, PCBs, modules and car-layout.
Pre-compliance tests have been standardized to
enable this at module and at IC level.
slide: 68

EMC : Pre-Compliance tests
Pre-compliance tests agreed between car-
manufacturer and module-supplier or between
module-manufacturer and IC supplier.
PRO: module and IC manufacturers make
portable designs
CON: tendency to end up with a chain of
over-specification
Of the many EMC standards, 3 standards are
particularly important for ICs.
IEC 61967 for EME measurements
(150kHz 1GHz, narrow-band EME)
IEC 62132 for EMS measurements
(150kHz 1GHz, narrow-band EMS)
ISO 7637 for Automotive transients
(EMS for power supply line disturbances)
slide: 69

EME standard: IEC 61967
IEC 61967 : Integrated circuits Measurement
of electromagnetic emissions 150kHz to 1GHz.
Part 1: General conditions and definitions
Radiated emission measurements
Part 2: TEM-cell (Transversal Electromagnetic cell)
Part 3: Surface scan method
Conducted emission measurements
Part 4: 1 Ohm/150 Ohm method
Part 5: Workbench Faraday Cage method (WBFC)
Part 6: Magnetic probe method
slide: 70

EMS standard: IEC 62132
IEC 62132 : Integrated circuits Measurement
of electromagnetic immunity 150kHz to 1GHz.
Part 1: General conditions and definitions
Radiated immunity measurements
Part 2: TEM-cell (Transversal Electromagnetic cell)
Conducted immunity measurements
Part 3: Bulk current Injection method (BCI)
Part 4: Direct RF Power Injection method (DPI)
Part 5: Workbench Faraday Cage method (WBFC)
slide: 71

Transients standard: ISO 7637
ISO 7637 : Road vehicles Electrical
disturbance by conduction and coupling
Part 0: General and Definitions
Part 1: Passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles with nominal 12 V supply voltage
Electrical transient conduction along supply lines
only
Part 2: Commercial vehicles with nominal 24 V
supply voltage Electrical transient conduction
along supply lines only
Part 3: Passenger cars and light commercial
vehicles with nominal 12 V supply voltage and
Commercial vehicles with nominal 24 V supply
voltage Electrical transient transmission by
capacitive and inductive coupling via lines other
than the supply lines.
slide: 72

EMC standards in design
How to include EMC in the IC development flow
EMC deals with electromagnetic fields.
EM noise generator emits EM-energy, wanted or
unwanted.
EM noise receiver susceptible to this EM-energy
The coupling channel conducts EM-energy from
the noise-generator to the noise-receiver via
radiation or conduction.
EM-noise
generator
EM-noise
receiver
radiation
conduction
slide: 73

EM-fields are not compatible with the SPICE
based simulation environment of IC-design,
which is electrical only.
At the IC level, EM-fields can be modeled by
Electrical fields only since the dimensions on
the chip and in the package are much smaller
than the wave length of the EMC signals
e.g. in air : = 30 cm @ 1GHz >> chip dimensions
On-chip current loops are very inefficient
antennas for electromagnetic emission and
susceptibility. (rule of thumb, L < / 20).
The variations are quasi-stationary and a Low-
Frequency modeling with L, R and C is adequate.
slide: 74

Radiated emission and susceptibility is not the
major problem for ICs.
Conducted emission and susceptibility to the
efficient antennas on the PCB and the cable
harness is the important problem.
Two EMC conductive methods, compatible with
simulation, have been standardized.
IEC 61967-4 (1O / 150O method)
IEC 62132-4 (DPI Direct Power Injection)
Note that ISO 7637 (Schaffner) is compatible
These methods model conducted EMC between
IC and PCB, not the EM-field. Generated EM-fields
are function of module and wiring layouts.
Limit setting for these methods is based on the
accumulated experience of the chip and module
manufacturers
slide: 75

System level test
Radiated
susceptibility
TEM cell tests
ISO11452 3
Shielded chamber
tests ISO11452 2
Conducted
susceptibility
ISO 76371
Conducted and
radiated emission
CISPR25
Etc
IC level tests :
empirical validation
and theoretical analysis
Susceptibility
Like IEC 62132-4
(Direct Power
Injection)
Like ISO 7637-1
(Conductive
transient pulses)
Emission
Like IEC 61967-4
(1 Ohm/150 Ohm
method)
slide: 76

Outline
Automotive
IC design
EME & EMS
&
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High
Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 77

EME 1O / 150O test
slide: 78

EME 1O / 150O test
1O method measures the RF sum current in a
single ground pin (RF current probe).
This measures the RF return current from the
various current loops (emitting antennas) of
the PCB.
150O method measures the RF voltage at a
single or at multiple output pins, which are
connected to long PCB traces or wiring
harness. (150O is the characteristic impedance of
wiring harnesses in a vehicle).
Various measurement configurations are used
for different types of outputs.
slide: 79

Standard EM-field graph
emission limit
example:
H-12-n-O
slide: 80

EME what happens
EME is generated by HF currents in external
loops, which act as antennas.
Sources of the HF currents
Switching of core digital logic: glue logic, core, DSP,
memory, clock drivers
synchronous logic generates large and sharp
current peaks with large HF content
Activity of the analog core circuit
does not generate large current peaks
Switching of the digital I/O pins
fast and large current peaks directly to the PCB
High power output drivers
large current peaks to the PCB and wiring harness.
slide: 81

EME how to cope with
Internal measures
Limit the switching power to the external
Use low power circuits & circuit techniques
- low power flip-flop, memory
- architecture with different clock domains
- lower or adaptive supply voltage
- .
Note: gated clocks are not efficient for EME if
modes exist where all gates are open.
Use a more advanced technology
Use on-chip capacitors
EME (HF) looks at switching power spectrum,
low-power digital looks at mean dissipated power.
slide: 82

Shape the current peaks to the external
Slow down the switching edges
- MS-FF and 2phase clock
- asynchronous logic
- controlled edges for I/O or power driver
- .
External and Chip-layout measures
Differential output signals e.g. CAN, LVDS
twisted-pair like lines generate less EME and are
less susceptible to EME
VDD and VSS close to each other
- differential signals (see above)
- external decoupling easier and more efficient
slide: 83

EME of the module is the result of the current
peaks generated by the IC times the
efficiency of the emitting antennas of the PCB
and wiring harness.
The current peaks simulated or measured with
the 1O / 150O method do not predict the correct
value of the emission but give a good relative
indication. A correlation with the actual
measured EME of the module is required.
Each manufacturer specifies his own limits
for the emission as simulated or measured
by the IEC 61967-4 1O / 150O method.
slide: 84

Example
In the example, spectra of
different current pulses are
evaluated. The current
pulses are simplified.
Simulated spectra
Reference current pulse in existing technology.
100mA outgoing pulse 100mV in 1O probe
Distributed pulse: amp. / 2, freq. x 2
HF spectrum remains, LF spectrum changes
Pulse with slower edges & same power: amp. / 2
HF spectrum lower, LF spectrum remains
Same logic in newer technology (2 generations):
power / 2, amp. X 1, width / 2, slopes x 2
HF spectrum higher, LF spectrum lower
slide: 85

Example
Spectrum of different pulses
r
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

s
p
e
c
t
r
u
m

(
1
0
0
m
V
,

5
.
0
n
s
e
c
,

1
M
H
z
)

[

E

-

4

-

c

]

d
i
s
t
r
i
b
u
t
e
d

p
u
l
s
e

(

5
0
m
V
,

5
.
0
n
s
e
c
,

2
M
H
z
)

[

E

-

4

-

c

]

s
l
o
w
e
r

p
u
l
s
e

s
l
o
p
e
s

(

5
0
m
V
,

1
0
.
0
n
s
e
c
,

1
M
H
z
)

[

E

-

5

-

e

]

n
e
w

t
e
c
h
n
o
l
o
g
y

(
1
0
0
m
V
,

2
.
5
n
s
e
c
,

1
M
H
z
)

[

F

-

4

-

b

]

reference spectrum
& distributed pulse
slide: 86

Example
CANH differential and single ended output
(for the given pulse mismatch)
Frequency / Hertz
0
6
12
18
24
30
36
42
48
54
60
66
72
78
84
10
5
2 3 4 5 6 8 10
6
2 3 4 5 6 8 10
7
2 3 4 5 6 8 10
8
2 3 4 5 6 8 10
9
Hz
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
i
k
l
m
n
o
p
q
r
s
t
u
v
w
y
z
f
dBV
V
CANH differential output [ F 7 h ]
slide: 87

Outline
Automotive
IC design
EME & EMS
& Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High
Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 88

EMS DPI test
Measurement set-up
The measurement set-up uses a power source
For Zin(DUT) > 200O, the power source can be
replaced by a voltage source.
For Zin(DUT) < 50O, the power source is better
replaced by a current source (Norton equivalent)
Note that Zin(DUT) is frequency and signal dependent
slide: 89

EMS DPI test
Simulation models
Simulation model for Zin > 200O
Guideline for amplitude A
V
A
V
= 22V @ 5W DPI (level 1)
A
V
= 7V @ 0.5W DPI (level 2)
A
V
= 2.2V @ 50mW DPI (level 3)
Simulation model for Zin < 50O
Guideline for amplitude A
I

P
inj
: required immunity level
|
.
|
\
|
+ O
O
=
Zin 50
Zin 50
P A
inj I
slide: 90

Not all I/O pins of the IC are connected to the
wiring harness and unprotected.
Level 1: direct connection to the environment
Level 2: direct connection to the environment but
some external low-pass filtering is available.
e.g. signal conditioning input stages, direct
sensor interfaces
Level 3: No direct connection of the I/O to the
environment.
e.g. interface chips connected to sensor chips in
the same module, A/D converter input stages
slide: 91

EMS caused malfunction is not always detrimental
Class A: all functions of a device/system perform
within the specification limits during and after the
exposure to the disturbance.
Class B: some functions can go temporarily beyond
the specification limits during the exposure. The
system recovers automatically after the exposure.
Class C: some functions can go temporarily beyond
the specification limits during the exposure. The
system does not recover automatically but requires
operator intervention or system reset.
Class D: degradation or loss of function, which is not
self-recoverable due to damage of the IC or loss of
data.
slide: 92

EMS what happens
The incident high-frequency electro-magnetic
power is partially absorbed in the IC and
causes disturbances in different ways:
1) Large HF voltages into a high-impedance node
2) Large HF currents into a low-impedance node
3) Large HF power into a node, which switches
from high-impedance to low-impedance at
device limits, at protection voltages or at
frequency breakpoints.
Rectification/pumping, Parasitic devices/currents
and Power dissipation are the three important
disturbing effects of EMS
slide: 93

EMS what happens
1) Large HF voltages into a high-impedance node
Medium power dissipation e.g. 9% of DPI for 1kO
Linear large signal behavior of components and
structures in the signal path no effect
Non-linear behavior of components and structures in
the signal path rectification effects (pumping) on
capacitors in the signal path. : important disturbance
on a chip e.g. bias pumping
Capacitive coupling input devices into the substrate
e.g. large driver in the OFF state, ESD structures
substrate currents and substrate bounce :
important effect for latch-up, pumping
Capacitive coupling to adjacent devices or structures
e.g. Cm = 100fF gives | Zm | = 10 kO at 159MHz
slide: 94

EMS what happens
2) Large HF currents into a low-impedance node
Large power dissipation e.g. 83% of DPI for 10O :
Important effect on chip.
Linear large current behavior of components and
structures in the current path no effect
Non-linear large current behavior of components and
structures in the current path rectification effects
(pumping) in the signal path: important disturbing
effect on a chip.
Inductive coupling to adjacent devices or structures :
only important for bondwires and leadframe
e.g. 100mA @ 159MHz gives ~ 750mV in an adjacent,
open wire.
slide: 95

EMS what happens
3) Large HF power into a node, which switches
from high-impedance to low-impedance
e.g. at device limits or at protection voltages
or at frequency breakpoints
Combines high voltage and large currents
Large power dissipation in clipping devices or
protection structures Important effect
clipping activates parasitic devices & current paths
large current peaks in the supply lines or other
pins generates EME in other loops on the PCB.
large current peaks in the substrate through
parasitic devices important effect
e.g. latch-up, substrate coupling
Nature of the signal path can change with frequency
important effect, difficult to cope with.
slide: 96

EMS how to cope with
Guidelines
Use good large signal and HF models
Include all parasitic components of the devices
(internal and external)
Design, simulate and layout with all parasitics
Avoid rectification : make circuits symmetrical
Differential circuit topologies and layout
Limit voltage input range of sensitive devices
such that they do not go in non-linear behavior or
in degradation conditions.
Limit frequency input range of sensitive devices :
band-limited signals
slide: 97

EMS how to cope with
Make circuits robust for rectification
Design for high CMRR & PSRR
Keep internal node impedances low
Keep sensitive nodes on-chip
Avoid / control parasitic devices and currents
Use protection devices that clip beyond the
required EMS injection levels
Make protection levels symmetrical
with respect to the signal
Minimize substrate currents
Collect substrate currents in controlled points
slide: 98

Example
Rectification
LF: both the NMOS/OpAmp circuit
and the LP-filter follow the
input variations
Iout is correct
MF: the NMOS/OpAmp circuit follows
Vin and conducts a linear current
in the PMOS diode. Vgs
PMOS
(Id) is
non-linear and the LP-Filter
output voltage is the mean of the
rectified Vgs
PMOS
(pumping)
Iout decreases
HF: the NMOS/OpAmp becomes a
Source follower which rectifies
the input current, The rectified
current is largely linearized in the
PMOS diode before the LP-filter.
Iout returns to correct value
LF: below LP-filter & OpAmp GBW
MF: between LP-filter & OpAmp GBW
HF: above LP-filter & OpAmp GBW
Note: at high DPI voltages, the ESD and
NMOS diodes can also rectify the
current (below OpAmp GBW)
slide: 99

Example
Current source error (filtered)
as function of the DPI source
voltage and frequency
100k 1M 10M
99%
90%
0%
50%
80%
95%
98%
frequency Vin
(Hz)
Iout (% of Iout without DPI source)
0.5 Vin
1.0 Vin
1.5 Vin
2.0 Vin
3.0 Vin
Vin: DPI source voltage (arbitrary units)
20 30 40 50 60 70
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Time/sec
Iout (%)
Vin : 500kHz 1.0*Aref
Vin : 500kHz 1.5*Aref
Effect of rectification on the
output current (pumping)
slide: 100

Example
Rectification in a differential comparator
Emitter follower rectification due to large Ccs of current
source replace current source by resistor
slide: 101

Example
Further EMS improvement
Input Attenuator
large improvement (LF & HF)
also for LF & HF signals beyond
the supply voltages
reduced sensitivity
Input Filter
large improvement (only HF)
also for HF signals beyond
the supply voltages
no sensitivity reduction
slide: 102

Example
Effect of the EMS improvements
100
10
1
1M 10M 100M 1G
EMI
DPI source strength
(relative units)
frequency
(Hz)
1
2
3
5
4
(1) original circuit with
current source
(2) current source
replaced by resistor
(3) with input attenuator
(4) with input filter
(5) with input attenuator
and input filter
The EMI value in the
graph is the maximum
value of the DPI source
strength for which the
comparator gain > 2
slide: 103

Example
Parasitic currents & substrate currents
Example: substrate currents in an ESD protection structure
slide: 104

Types of Substrate Current
Three important types of substrate current
Substrate currents, injected into the substrate by a
PNP transistor where the substrate is the collector, by
diode breakdown, by impact ionization
Effect: substrate biasing, which can activate
other parasitic transistors or cause latch-up.
Substrate currents, extracted from the substrate by a
forward biased diode. This diode becomes a lateral
NPN with any other neighboring N-region as collector.
Effect: extraction of currents from other distant
N-regions (up to millimeters distance).
Capacitive currents due to junction or oxide
capacitors, coupled to the substrate.
Effect: substrate biasing (bounce) & capacitive
coupling to other junctions or oxide capacitors
slide: 105

Example
Problem: for the input strapped to ground, the output toggles
from low to high for low EM injection
Cause: substrate current extraction from the NMOS drain
during negative pulses overrides the bias current
slide: 106

Example
Solution: new ESD protection circuit without substrate NPN,
back-to-back zener diodes and shielding of the NMOS gate.
Vin
Vcc
Vbat
Vbias
Vout
back-to-back
ESD zener diodes
ESD protection
for positive and
negative battery
voltages
Schmitt trigger
with shielded
NMOS-gate
regulator
large current
pull-up Isub
DPI Source
LP-filter
slide: 107

Outline

Automotive
IC design
EMC &
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High
Voltage
High Temp.
slide: 108

Automotive transients
Standard test pulse 2
Interruption of the current in an
inductor in series with the device
under test
(ISO 7637, part1)
Disconnection of a supply from an
inductive load, while the device
under test remains in parallel with
the inductive load
(ISO 7637, part1)
slide: 109

Standard test pulses 3a and 3b
These pulses simulate transient, occurring as a result of
switching processes. They are influenced by distributed
capacitances and inductance of the wiring harness.
(ISO 7637, part1)
slide: 110

LOAD DUMP:
This happens when the battery is
disconnected while it is being
charged by the alternator.
(ISO 7637, part1)
BATTERY VOLTAGE DROP: During
motor start, the battery is
overloaded and the voltage drops,
especially in cold weather.
(ISO 7637, part1)
slide: 111

For alternators
with autoprotection
Standard test pulses 5 : LOAD DUMP clamped
Load dump amplitude depends on alternator speed and field
excitation. Load dump duration depends on the time constant of the
field excitation circuit and the amplitude.
Today most alternators have an internal protection against load
dump surge. The 6 zener diodes clamp above 24Volt.
slide: 112

.
Simulates the decrease of the
magnetic field of the alternator
when the engine stops.
(ISO 7637, part1)
This disturbance occurs when the
ignition current is interrupted.
(ISO 7637, part1)
slide: 113

Test pulses
(ISO 7637, part1)
Test levels
(values agreed to between car manufacturer
and supplier)
Pulse
type
Series
resistance
Impulse
duration
I II II IV
1 10 O 2 ms -25V -50V -75V -100V
2 10 O 50 s +25V +25V +75V +100V
3a
3b
50 O 0.1 s -40V
+25V
-75V
+50V
-110V
+75V
-150V
+100V
4

10 O up to 20
sec
9V
(12V -3V)
7V
(12V-5V)
6V
(12V-6V)
5V
(12V-7V)
5
1O

up to
400ms
+35V +50V +80V +120V

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa

The customer has to define the Level of Test
according the needs of his application.
Typical requirement today: Level IV, except Load dump: Level II - III.
slide: 114

Transients What happens
Automotive transients (ISO-7637-1): electrical
transient conduction along the supply lines only.
other IC pins indirectly connected to supply
via load devices (outputs) or sensors (inputs)
ISO-7637-1 describes two types of pulses
Pulse 4 defines the minimum battery voltage.
Note: battery voltage = module supply voltage.
Internal IC supply voltage = module supply
reverse battery diode
module supply regulator
internal supply regulator of the chip.
Pulses 1, 2, 3a, 3b, 5, 6 and 7 describe high voltage,
high power transient disturbances on the supply line.
slide: 115

Transients what happens
The high voltage, very high power transient
disturbances can cause excessive substrate
currents and power dissipation in the IC if
they exceed the voltage capability of the chip.
The IC can only survive if:
Transient peak voltages blocked
e.g. high-voltage techno or lower level transient spec
Transient voltages externally limited
e.g. static with zener diodes (clamped load dump)
e.g. dynamic limitation with RC (all other pulses)
e.g. reverse battery protection diode
Peak currents internally or externally limited
e.g. series impedance of load or sensor or external R
e.g. low impedance output dynamically switched-off
slide: 116

Automotive transients example
Typical input supply
protection
reverse bias diode
RC-filter (pulses 1, 2, 3a, 3b)

Low-side NDMOS driver
with 100V input range
NDMOS with reverse
voltage diode (PNP)
NDMOS drive logic with
slope control
Clamp circuit to prevent
lateral NPN activation
during fast negative pulses
below ground
slide: 117

Automotive transients example
Bandgap with improved tolerance for
substrate currents and temperature
Transient or EMC induced
substrate current extraction
and high temperature leakage
currents from all N/Sub diodes.
(NPN collectors, PMOS N-well,
NMOS S/D diffusions)
Transient or EMC induced current
injection into the substrate,
connected to AGND.
Capacitive coupling through all
N/Sub diode capacitors
No direct effect on the most
sensitive bandgap circuits:
bipolar PTAT and OpAmp input
stage.
slide: 118

Automotive
IC design
EMC &
Automotive
transients
Cost & TTM
Quality
& Safety
High
Voltage
High Temp.
Fully compliant
Automotive
IC design
Result
slide: 119

Result
Combination of Silicon
and Design Technology
for Automotive Applications
slide: 120

Ackowledgments

This work would not have been possible
without the cooperation and dedication of
many colleagues at AMI Semiconductor.
I would like to thank in particular:
Michel De Mey, Aarnout Wieers,
Geert Vandensande, Hans Gugg-
Schweiger, Eddy Blansaer, Luc Dhaeze,
Koen Geirnaert, Herve Branquart
and many others.
slide: 121

References 1
P. Thoma, Risks for the automotive industry with regard to the market shift in world-
wide semiconductor demand (in German), VDI Berichte nr. 1287, pp 1-12, 12
September 1996.
Potential Failure Mode and Effect analysis (FMEA), 3th edition, April 2001,
Chrysler Corporation, ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
IEC 61967-4, Integrated Circuits Measurement of Electromagnetic Emissions
150 kHz to 1 GHz, Part 4: Measurement of Conducted Emission, 1Ohm/150Ohm
Method.
IEC 62132-4, Integrated Circuits Measurement of Electromagnetic Immunity
150 kHz to 1 GHz, Part 4: Direct RF Power Injection Method.
ISO 7637-1 , ISO 7637-2, Road Vehicles Electrical Disturbance by Conduction
and Coupling, vehicles with nominal 12V (part 1) and 24V (part 2) supply voltages
Electrical transient conduction along supply lines only.
J. Kassakian, Challenges of the New 42Volt Architecture and Progress on its
International Acceptance, VDI Berichte nr. 1415, pp. 21-35, 08 October 1998
Hans-Dieter Hartmann, Standardisation of the 42V PowerNet - History, Current
Status, Future Action, HDT conference "42V-PowerNet: The first Solutions",
Villach, Austria, September 28-29, 1999

slide: 122

References - 2
K. Ehlers, The effect of the 3-litre car on the architecture of the automotive
electrical system, 5.98, http://www.sci-worx.com Partner Forum
Bordnetzarchitektur
Ivars G. Finvers, J. W. Haslett, F.N. Trofimenkoff, A High Temperature Precision
Amplifier, IEEE Journal of Solid-state Circuits, vol. 30, pp 120-128, February 1995.
Paul C. de Jong, Smart Sensor systems for High-Temperature Applications, PhD
dissertation, T.U. Delft, the Netherlands, November 1998.
Paul C. de Jong, Gerard C. M. Meijer, Arthur H. M. van Roermond, A 300C
Dynamic-Feedback Instrumentation Amplifier, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits,
vol. 33, pp. 1999-2009, December 1998.
High Temperature Electronics, edited by F.Patrick McCluskey, Richard
Grzybowski, Thomas Podlesak, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, 1997, ISBN 0-
8493-9623-9
W. Wondrak, A. Dehbi, G. Umbach, A. Blessing, R. Getto, F. P. Pesl and W. Unger,
Passive Components for High Temperatures: Application Potential and
Technological Challenges AEC Reliability Workshop, Nashville 2004
Ron Schmitt, Understanding Electromagnetic Fields and Antenna Radiation takes
(almost) no Math, EDN magazine, March 2, 2000, pp 77-88.
slide: 123

References - 3
Wolfgang Horn, Heinz Zitta, A Robust Smart Power Bandgap Reference Circuit for
Use in an Automotive Environment, IEEE Journal of Solid-state Circuits, vol. 37, pp
949-952, July 2002.
M. De Mey, Robustness in Analog Design, Proceedings of the 12
th
Workshop on
the Advances in Analogue Circuit Design, AACD 2003, 15-17 April 2003, Graz
Austria
B. Deutschmann, Improvement of System Robustness through EMC Optimization,
Proceedings of the 12
th
Workshop on the Advances in Analogue Circuit Design,
AACD 2003, 15-17 April 2003, Graz Austria
D. Temmen, Noise rejection of clocked interference sources (in German), VDI
Berichte nr. 1646, pp. 599-618, 27 September 2001
Robert J. Widlar, Controlling Substrate Currents in Junction-Isolated ICs, IEEE
Journal of Solid-state Circuits, vol. 26, pp 1090-1097, August 1991.
Bruno Murari, Power Integrated Circuits, Problems, Tradeoffs and Solutions, IEEE
Journal of solid-state Circuits, vol 13, pp 307-319, June 1978

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