Factors that influence the tensile

strength
The quality of the concrete is influenced by its plastic
character behavior near breaking. The concretes of inferior
quality behave with a pronounced plastic character, and the
stresses from the tensioned zone are distributed quite
uniformly; in the concretes of superior quantity, having a
pronounced elastic behavior, the distributions of the stresses
are linear. Consequently, this factor will influence much more
the value of the strength for the concrete subjected to
bending tension, while the strength of the concrete subjected
to riving tension is less influenced.
The form and the size of the test samples. The tensile
strength of the concrete is influenced by the size of the test
sample, its value decreasing with the increase of the cross
section. One cause is attributed to the concrete shrinkage
that creates an initial state of stress, reducing the tensile
strength.
To the big size elements, the shrinkage is not
uniform on the element surface and the stresses
produced by the shrinkage are bigger, which
leads to a decreasing of Rt.
The strength Rti is influenced by the depth of the cross
section: when depth is bigger, then Rti is smaller,
because the plasticity of the tensioned zone is smaller
when the depth is bigger.
The quality of cement and the cement dosage,
influence though the quality of the cement stone that
assures the bond between aggregates. The superior
quality cements from concretes with bigger tensile
strength.
The increase of the cement dosage influence more
significantly the compressive strength than the tensile
strength; in some cases, the increase of the cement
dosage can produce a diminish of the tensile strength.
The ratio W/C does not significantly influence the tensile
strength.
The aggregates influence though the nature of
surface, granulosity and mineralogical nature. A concrete
prepared with crushed stone has a bigger tensile
strength, because of their better adherence to the
cement stone.
When the fine parts have a large volume, the tensile
strength is smaller.
The mineralogical nature influences though the
adherence realized on the surface aggregate-cement
stone.
The tensile strength is more significantly influenced
by the protection of the concrete after pouring; if this
protection is not realized, the tensile strength will be
smaller. Also, the homogeneity of the concrete, the compaction
technology and the admixtures which diminish the quantity of water,
have a good influence on the tensile strength.

The keeping environment influences very much the
tensile strength, especially by its humidity. In the first
stages of its hardening, the concrete must be kept in
favorable conditions. The concrete kept in wet
environment has bigger tensile strength. To the
concretes that harden in dry environment, initial stresses
of shrinkage occur, these reducing the tensile strength.
The water evaporation from the concrete, at a short time
from its pouring, depends on the wind speed, that
produce the air change on the concrete surface. An
increase of the protection temperature of the concrete
hurries the chemical hydration reactions and has a good
influence on the early strength of the concrete, without
any dangerous effect on the later strength. But a higher
temperature during the pouring and the hardening, can
unfavorably influence the strength after 7 days.
Shear strength of the concrete
In reinforced concrete elements, the pure shear strain is very
seldom met. Usually the shear forces are accompanied by
bending moments, which result in simultaneous unit shear
stresses and normal stresses . The direct determination of
shear strength or is a difficult operation, having in view the
great number of test samples Fig. 3.12.
Fig. 3.12 Types of test samples
Taking into account that in the failure state the
distribution of the unit stresses is modified and the
concrete is a brittle material, the failure can be
considered to take place under the action of principal
unit tension stresses , the breaking being produced by
wresting:
For calculation, we can admit:


( )
b
R 3 , 0 . .......... 2 , 0 R =
t
ti
R 6 , 1 R =
t
Breaking of the concrete
subjected to torsion
The torsion test of some test samples showed that
oblique cracks appear on lateral surfaces at 45 from the
ax of the bar, disposed on propeller-type direction,
(Fig.3.13), the same with that of the principal unit
compressive stresses, thus showing that the breaking is
caused by the principal unit tension stresses .
Only unit shear stresses occur on the cross section
of the test samples tested to torsion. If the moments of
torsion are not too big and the unit stresses do not
exceed the micro-cracking value of the unit tensile
stress, the concrete behaves like an elastic material, in
cases of short time loading.
Fig. 3.13. The cracking of torsion elements
For a cylindrical test sample,
supposing that the material is
elastic we can write:
te
t
tt
W
M
R =
t
M
is the torsion moment

te
W
is the torsion resistance modulus
2
r
r 2
r
r
I
W
3 4
p
te
=
t
= =
p
I
is a polar inertia moment of the cross section.
Approximate methods are used in the case of bars with
cross sections other than circular.
If the concrete would haven elastic behavior up to its
breaking:
t te te
R . W M =
Actually, if the torsion moment exceeds a certain limit
value, the stresses produce the microcraking of the
Concrete.
1
o
Further on its behavior is elastic-plastic.
Experimental researches showed that for usual
concretes the plasticity is complete or near complete
before the failure.
Relation between compressive and tensile
strengths
The compressive strength of concrete is
considered the most important property and it is
used for structural design especially in civil
engineering.
For some purposes the tensile strength is used for
designing, for example in the case of the design of
highway and air field slabs, shear strength,
resistance to cracking.

t tp t
R . W M =
tp
W
is the torsion resistance modulus in the plastic stage.
In hydraulic construction the concrete is
characterized by the split tensile strength and
flexural strength, near the compressive strength
at 90 days.
The road concrete is characterized by the
flexural strength.
The two types of strength are related, but there
is no direct proportionality. As the compressive
strength fc increases, the tensile strength, ft also
increases but at a decreasing rate.
A number of factors affect the relation between
the two strengths, such as: type and grading of
aggregates, age, type of tests, curing,
compaction, etc
A number of empirical formulae connecting tensile
strength f
t
and compressive strength f
c
have been
suggested, many of them of the type:
( )
n
c t
f k f =
where: k and n are coefficients.
The best relation is given by the expression:
( )
3 / 2
c t
f 3 . 0 f =
where: f
t
is the splitting strength in MPa
fc is the compressive strength on cylinders.
The above expression was suggested by Raphael [1].
A modification was given by Oluokun:

( )
7 , 0
2 , 0
c t
f f =
A relation given in British Code of Practice
BS 8007:1987 is:


Where the compressive strength is
determined on cubes (MPa) and ft
represents the direct tensile strength
The mean strength to axial tension, fctm
can be computed from the average value
of compressive strength, fcm with relation
[2]:

( )
7 , 0
12 , 0
c t
f f =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
cmo
cm
n ctmo ctm
f
f
1 l f f
MPa 10 f
MPa 12 . 2 f
cmo
ctmo
=
=
where:
Breaking of the concrete
subjected to fatigue
One of the most important elements that influences the
breaking resistances of the concrete subjected to
different loads, is the time element, consisting in the
speed of test and the period of maintaining under
charge.
If the loading speed increases, the compression
strength of the concrete also increases. The explanation
consists in the occurrence and increase of the micro-
cracking process. At great loading speeds, the
developing of the micro cracking is not complete, thus
the breaking occurs at bigger stresses. If loading has a
permanent or a long-term duration character and its
intensity is situated over the micro-cracking limit, the
micro-cracks develop in the whole mass of the concrete
and the breaking takes place in time, at smaller loads
than in the case of testing under short-term duration.
The minimum value of the unit stress to which the
breaking takes place is named duration mechanical
strength or statistic fatigue strength.
The constructions placed in seismic zones can be
subjected to repeated major loads during earthquakes.
The phenomenon of fatigue appears even if the
number of cycles during the earthquake is not too big
(this phenomenon is known as low-cycle fatigue).
In many structures, however, repeated loading is
applied. Typical of these are offshore structures
subjected to wave and wind loading, bridges, road and
railway sleepers (ties); a number of cycles of loading
applied during the life of the structure may be as high as
10 million, and occasionally even 50 million.
The concrete solicited at high speed until the value of the
statically breaking force is reached, does not attain the
critical state off degradation from the first cycle.

Only after some cycles the volume of
degradations increases and can produce the
breaking. If the maximum load gradually
diminishes with every cycle, the chances of
survival increase.
If during the loading cycle the load intensity
does not very much exceed the micro-cracking
limit, the micro-cracks can develop only after a
great number of loading-unloading cycles (this is
dynamic fatigue). The number of cycles is much
bigger if the load produces stresses with values
near the micro-cracking limit. The number of
cycles to which the fatigue occurs depends on
the amplitude of the loading oscillation, that is
the ratio between the minimum and maximum
stress , also named lop-sided coefficient.
When a material fails under a number of
repeated loads, each smaller than the static
compressive strength, failure in fatigue is said to
take place.
One considers a concrete specimen
subjected to alternations of compressive
stresses. The stress-strain curve varies with the
number of load repetition, changing from
concave towards the strain axis (with a
hysteresis loop on unloading) to the straight line,
and eventually becomes concave towards the
stress axis. The degree of this latter concavity is
an indication of how near the concrete is to
failure. Failure will however, take place only
above a certain limiting value, known as fatigue
limit or endurance limit.
The change in strain with the number of cycles of loading
can be described as consisting of three phases. In phase
1, that is, the initiation phase, strain increases rapidly,
but a progressively decreasing rate, with the number of
cycles of loading. In phase 2, which represents the
stable state, strain increases approximately linearly with
the number, of cycles. In phase 3, which represents
instability, strain increases at a progressively increasing
rate until failure in fatigue take place.
The strain at failure in fatigue is much larger than in
static failure.
The elastic strain also increases progressively with
cycling.
Strictly speaking, concrete does not appear to have a
fatigue limit, i.e. a fatigue strength at an infinite number
of cycles.
Generally speaking, the ratio of fatigue strength to static
strength is not independent of the water cement ratio, the
cement content type of aggregate, and age at loading because
these factors affect both the static and fatigue strength in the
same manner.
As strength increases with age, fatigue strength both in
compression and in flexure also increases. The important point
is that, at a given number of cycles, fatigue failure occurs at the
same fraction of ultimate strength, and is thus independent of
the magnitude of this strength and of the age of concrete. It can
thus be seen that a single parameter is critical in fatigue failure.
It was exposed the view that the deterioration of bond between
the hydrated cement paste and aggregate is responsible for this
failure.
It should also be noted that, for a given maximum stress in the
cycle, as the amplitude of stress decreases, we are no longer
dealing with fatigue but rather with sustained loading which
leads to creep failure.

The duration of cycling becomes therefore important.
Expressions taking this into account were developed by
Hsu, who considers that separate equation for fatigue life
are needed for low-cycle loading of the type caused by
earthquakes.
About the fatigue behavior of reinforced and pre-
stressed concrete, it should note that fatigue cracks in
concrete act as stress-raisers thus magnifying the
vulnerability of the steel to fatigue failure.
Another observation relevant to reinforced concrete is
that the fatigue strength of bond of concrete with the
reinforcement is the governing factor in reinforced
concrete subjected to cyclic loading.
The fatigue strength depends on the age and the quality of
the concrete, increasing with them.
The fatigue tensile strength represents 0,6 of static tensile
strength.
Breaking theories of concrete
The breaking process of the concrete develops
by the interaction of lot phenomena that occur
behind and during breaking. It is very difficult to
establish only one theory (or mechanism) that
could take into account all complex phenomena
that are developed in the concrete structure.
In the course of time, many theories have
appeared. They can by classified as follows:
- phenomenological (or classical) theories;
- statistical theories;
- structural theories.
Phenomenological theories
These theories admit the following assumptions:
- the concrete is an homogeneous, elastic, isotropic
and continuous material;
- the breaking force is not influenced by the time and
the speed loading;
- the breaking behaviors does not depend on the
loads applying order.
Having in view the fact that these theories want to
establish the rules after which the breaking is produced,
when the member subjected to a complex stress state, I
the case when its behavior to simple solicitation is
known.
In this case, the six compounds can be replaced by the
unit principal stresses, on three directions ,
between these the following relation is admitted:
3 2 1
, , o o o
The maximum unit stresses theory admits that the
breaking is produced when the maximum unit stress
exceeds the breaking strength of material, and in this
case, one can write:
3 2 1
o > o > o
cr 3 , 2 , 1
o s o
where
cr
o
represents the compressive strength
or the tensile strength.
The maximum specific deformation theory considers
that the breaking is produced
when the maximum specific deformation exceeds the limit
specific deformation:
where c
b
,c
t
are the limit specific deformations to
compression and tension, respectively.
c) The theory of the maximum unit tangential stresses
supposes that the breaking appears when the maximum
unit tangential stress exceeds a critical value.
The theories that refer to the physical phenomenon of
the breaking consider that the concrete is a
homogeneous material, and, in reality, the concrete is a
material with elastic-viscous-plastic properties.
Hence, other theories tried to explain the breaking
phenomenon though the plastic criteria.
t b max
, c c s c
d) The theory of the specific mechanical work of from
modification, or the plasticity criterion, considers that the
breaking is produced when the specific mechanical work
of form modification is exceeded for an element
subjected to compression or tension.
Statistical theories
The statistical theories consider that a process of
occurrence
and development of micro-cracks that are normally
orientated
on the direction of maximum tensile stresses precede the
breaking process.
Also, these theories consider that the concrete is not
homogeneous, and near the defects, stresses
concentrations occur.
The reparation of the structure defects is considered to
be done under a statistical rule, fact that is not real,
because the defects distribution depends on the
technological factors, and on the keeping of the
concrete after its pouring.
These theories neglect some specifically characteristics
of the concrete, (the gradual breaking character, the
influence of preparing, pouring and keeping conditions).
Structural theories
These theories consider that the concrete breaking
is produced by wresting on the maximum elongation direction,
and the breaking is gradually produced.
Hence, four stages of breaking were observed:
- an incubation period;
- a breaking period of deformations;
- an uniform development of deformations;
- a self-accelerated period of deformation development,
that precede the breaking.
The researches made by Graff, Skramtaev, LHermite,
Gvozdev, Seikin, Slate, Sturman, Berg, etc., for
discovering the breaking process to axial compression
had shown that:
- the concrete breaking is produced by traction (wresting)
on the maximum elongation direction, at the contact
surface aggregate-matrix, though the matrix, or even
though aggregates.

- in the charged concrete structure micro-cracks are
developed; these micro-cracks gradually unite and form
macro-cracks;
- the unit stress under that the first micro-cracks occurs is in
direct ratio to the concrete grade;
- for a stress that exceeds a certain value, depending on
the concrete grade the concrete breaking can be
produced by statically fatigue.
The occurrence of micro-cracks in the concrete is
favored by some factors, such as:
- the existence of the stress concentrations to the top of
defects;
- the different properties of matrix and aggregates;
- the stress states produced by shrinkage, swelling, etc.
The breaking of the concrete to compression is produced
as a result of the occurrence of micro-cracks in the
concrete structure; these micro-cracks can develop or
can stop. This is the first stage. In this stage, the
consolidation process is stronger than the destruction
one, and this fact leads to a damping of the breaking
process in time. The micro-cracks occur when the unit
stresses attain the micro-cracking limit R0.
The second stage in the concrete behavior is
represented by the moment when the stress attains the
critic stress Rcr, over which the breaking begins to
produce in an accelerated rhythm. When ,

the destruction process is continued, and in time appears
an intense degradation of the concrete structure, that will
lead to the breaking.
cr b
R s o
3.8. Characteristics and design
strength of the concrete
Concrete
The following clauses give principles and rules for
normal and high strength concrete.
Strength
The compressive strength of concrete is denoted
by concrete strength classes which relate to the
characteristic (5%) cylinder strength fck, or the
cube strength fck,cube, in accordance with EN
206-1.
The strength classes in this code are based on the
characteristic cylinder strength fck determined at
28 days with a maximum value of Cmax.
The recommended value is C90/105.

The characteristic strengths for fck and the
corresponding mechanical characteristics necessary
for design, are given in Table 3.1.
In certain situations (e.g. prestressing) it may be
appropriate to assess the compressive strength for
concrete before or after 28 days, on the basis of test
specimens stored under other conditions than
prescribed in EN 12390.
If the concrete strength is determined at an age t >
28 days the values cc and ct defined in 3.1.6
(1)P and 3.1.6 (2)P should be reduced by a factor
kt. The recommended value is 0,85.
(5) It may be required to specify the concrete
compressive strength, fck(t), at time t for a number
of stages (e.g. demoulding, transfer of prestress),
where
fck(t) = fcm(t) - 8 (MPa) for 3 < t < 28 days.
fck(t) = fck for t .> 28 days

(6) The compressive strength of concrete at
an age t depends on the type of cement,
temperature and curing conditions. For a
mean temperature of 20C and curing in
accordance
with EN 12390 the compressive strength of
concrete at various ages fcm(t) may be
estimated from Expressions (3.1) and (3.2).

Where:
cm cc t cm
f t f = ) (
) (
|
where:
fcm(t) is the mean concrete compressive strength at
an age of t days

(
(

|
.
|

\
|
=
2 /
) (
28
1 exp
t
t cc
t
s |
fcm is the mean compressive strength at 28 days
according to Table 3.1
cc(t) is a coefficient which depends on the age of
the concrete t
t is the age of the concrete in days
s is a coefficient which depends on the type of
cement:
= 0,20 for cement of strength Classes CEM 42,5 R,
CEM 52,5 N and CEM 52,5 R(Class R)
= 0,25 for cement of strength Classes CEM 32,5 R,
CEM 42,5 N (Class N)
= 0,38 for cement of strength Classes CEM 32,5 N
(Class S)
Note: exp{ } has the same meaning as e( )


Where the tensile strength is determined as the
splitting tensile strength, fct,sp, an approximate
value of the axial tensile strength, fct, may be
taken as:
fct = 0,9fct,sp (3.3)
The development of tensile strength with time is
strongly influenced by curing and drying conditions
as well as by the dimensions of the structural
members. As a first approximation it may be
assumed that the tensile strength fctm(t) is equal
to:

| |
ctm cc t ctm
f t f =
o
| ) (
) (
where cc(t) follows from Expression (3.2) and
= 1 for t < 28
= 2/3 for t 28. The values for fctm are
given in Table 3.1.
Note: Where the development of the tensile
strength with time is important it is
recommended that tests are
carried out taking into account the exposure
conditions and the dimensions of the structural
member.
05 , 0 , ctk
f
95 , 0 , ctk
f
ctm
f
Characteristic strength to axial tension with fractil of 5%,

noted
respectively with fractil 95% noted
the mdium value is obtained function

the mean value with following relations:
ctm ctk
f f = 7 , 0
05 , 0 ,
ctm ctk
f f = 3 , 1
95 , 0 ,
Design strengths in compression
and in tension are established with
relations:
(fcd)
(fctd)
c
ck cc
cd
f
f

o
=
c
ctk ct
ctd
f
f

o
05 , 0 ,
=
cc
o
ct
o
Where:
and

Are coefficients that take into consideration the
long term and unfavourable effects resulted from
the loads aplication.
The partial safety coefficient for
concrete
for design situations permanent
and transitory;
for accidental situations.
Coefficient is between 0,8 and1,0. In
EC2 the reccomended value for and
for is 1,0.
The values of strengths are given in Table
1.
c

5 , 1 =
c

2 , 1 =
c

cc
o
cc
o
ct
o
Confined concrete

Confinement of concrete results in a modification of the
effective stress-strain relationship:higher strength and
higher critical strains are achieved. The other basic
material characteristicsmay be considered as unaffected
for design.
In the absence of more precise data, the stress-strain
relation shown in Figure 3.6 (compressive strain shown
positive) may be used, with increased characteristic
strength and strains according to:
strains according to:
fck,c = fck (1,000 + 5,0 2/fck) for 2 < 0,05fck
fck,c = fck (1,125 + 2,50 2/fck) for 2 > 0,05fck
c2,c = c2 (fck,c/fck)2
cu2,c = cu2 + 0,2 2/fck
where 2 (= 3) is the effective lateral
compressive stress at the ULS due to
confinement and c2 and cu2 follow from Table
3.1.
Confinement can be generated by adequately
closed links or cross-ties, which reach the plastic
condition due to lateral extension of the
concrete.

Figure 3.6: Stress-strain relationship for confined concrete
Transversal reinforcing with spiral
The confinement effect on increasing the concrete
compressive strength is important in the case of
columns with circular cross section subjected to
compression.
Conclusions
EC2 STAS 10107/90
f
cm
-> f
ck
(cylinders) R
b
->R
bk
cubes (28
days)
Characteristic strengths
f
ck
R
ck
=(0.87-0.002R
bk
)R
bk

f
ctm
=0.3(f
ck
)
2/3
R
tk
=0.22(R
ck
)
2/3

Design strengths:
f
cd
=(f
ck
/
c
)o R
c
=m
bc
R
ck
/
bc

o=1 R
t
=m
bt
R
tk
/
bt

m
bc
=m
bt
=1

c
=1.5 FG
bc
=1.35
=1.3 AC
bt
=1.5
FG-fundamental group of loads
AC accidental combination of loads
is partial safety coefficient for concrete


Table 3.1 Mechanical characteristics of concrete (MPa)
Concrete
grade
C12/15 C16/20 C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C35/45 C40/50
ck
f

12 16 20 25 30 35 40
cub ck
f
,

15 20 25 30 37 45 50
cm
f

20 24 28 33 38 43 48
ctm
f

1,6 1,9 2,2 2,6 2.9 3,2 3,5
05 , 0 , ctk
f

1,1 1,3 1,5 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,5
95 , 0 , ctk
f

2,0 2,5 2,9 3,3 3,8 4,2 4,6