Experiments with blood transfusions, the transfer of blood or blood components into a person's blood stream, have been

carried out for hundreds of years. Many patients have died and it was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer.

Mixing blood from two individuals can lead to blood clumping or agglutination. The clumped red cells can crack and cause toxic reactions. This can have fatal consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that blood clumping was an immunological reaction which occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells.

Karl Landsteiner's work made it possible to determine blood groups and thus paved the way for blood transfusions to be carried out safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.

An adult human has about 46 liters of blood circulating in the body. Among other things, blood transports oxygen to various parts of the body. Blood consists of several types of cells floating around in a fluid called plasma.

Characteristics of Blood
1.bright red (oxygenated) 2.dark red/purplish (unoxygenated) 3.much more dense than pure water 4.pH range from 7.35 to 7.45 (slightly alkaline) 5.slightly warmer than body temperature 100.4 F (38 C) 6.typical volume in adult male 5-6 liters 7.typical volume in adult female 4-5 liters

8.typically 8% of body weight

Functions of Blood
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that is pumped by the heart through the vessels (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins) of the cardiovascular system. Transports oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to body tissues, and carbon dioxide and waste materials from tissues to be excreted. Acid-base regulation. Controls respiratory acidosis (low pH) or alkalosis (high pH) through the bicarbonate buffer system. H+ combines with bicarbonate to form carbonic acid, which dissociates to form CO2 and H2O. CO2 is exhaled, and blood becomes less acidic. Thermoregulation. During hyperthermia, carries excess heat to the body surface. Immunity. Leukocytes (white blood cells) are transported to sites of injury or invasion by disease-causing agents. Hemostasis. Thrombocytes (platelets) and clotting proteins minimize blood loss when a blood vessel is damaged.

The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds oxygen. Red blood cells transport oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from, the body tissues.
The white blood cells fight infection. The platelets help the blood to clot, if you get a wound for example. The plasma contains salts and various kinds of proteins.

Straw colored, nonliving part of blood. 90% Water Helps to regulate body temperature Contains Electrolytes (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl, HCO3 , HPO42, SO42) Plasma transports blood cells, products of digestion and hormones throughout the body.

Albumins, the smallest and most

abundant proteins in the blood, maintain the osmotic pressure of the blood, buffer the blood, and contribute to the viscosity of blood. The globulin proteins in the blood function in transport, enzymatic action, clotting, and immunity. The electrolytes are necessary for membrane transport, blood osmolarity, and neurological function.

About 5 liters

Shaped like round plates indented in the center. Have no nucleus

Blood is red because it contains hemoglobin and iron rich pigment.

Hemoglobin picks up the oxygen molecules and drops off CO2

Binds to RBC better than oxygen. Not good Kills us silently Cant smell it or taste it.

Occurs when the blood does not have enough hemoglobin. Treated by taking in more iron Because iron makes up hemoglobin

Genetic disease Red blood cells become sickle shape Cant carry as much oxygen

Disease that attacks the RBC. Causes high fever If you have sickle cell shaped RBC can not get the disease.

Fight infections Large in size Have a nucleus Phagocyte

Granulocytes are white blood cells whose cytoplasm contains tiny granules. The cells are named according to the staining characteristics of the granules. Neutrophils - the granules do not stain with normal blood stains so we generally see just the multilobed nucleus. Neutrophils are phagocytic cells; they engulf foreign material Eosinophils have red-staining granules.
They seem to be attracted to allergic reactions in the body.

Basophils have dark blue-staining granules. They are the least numerous blood cells. They help initiate the inflammatory process at sites of injury.

neutrophils (upper two cells) eosinophil (lower left cell)

Neutrophils 60-70% Lymphocytes 20-25% Monocytes 3-8% Eosinophils 1-3% Basophils to 1%

(N)EVER (L)ET (M)ONKEYS (E)AT (B)ANANAS

Agranulocytes are white blood cells that have no distinct granules in their cytoplasm. Lymphocytes have large single nuclei that occupy most of the cells.
They are an important part of the body's immune system.

Lymphocyte (left)

Monocytes are the largest of the white blood cells. They have large pleomorphic (variously shaped) single nuclei and function mainly as phagocytic (engulfing) cells. They are important in the long-term cleanup of debris in an area of injury.

Smallest part of blood No nucleus Live 2-4 days Involved in clotting of blood

Makes the cells of the blood

Bone marrow is located inside certain long bones.

Form of cancer in which the bone marrow makes too many white blood cells.

The differences in human blood are due to the presence or absence of certain protein molecules called antigens and antibodies. The antigens are located on the surface of the red blood cells and the antibodies are in the blood plasma. Individuals have different types and combinations of these molecules. The blood group you belong to depends on what you have inherited from your parents.

There are more than 20 genetically determined blood group systems known today, but the AB0 and Rh systems are the most important ones used for blood transfusions. Not all blood groups are compatible with each other. Mixing incompatible blood groups leads to blood clumping or agglutination, which is dangerous for individuals.
Nobel Laureate Karl Landsteiner was involved in the discovery of both the AB0 and Rh blood groups.

According to the AB0 blood group system there are four different kinds of blood groups: A, B, AB or 0

If you belong to the blood group A, you have A antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

If you belong to the blood group B, you have B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and A antibodies in your blood plasma.

If you belong to the blood group AB, you have both A and B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasma.

If you belong to the blood group 0 (null), you have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

Many people also have a so called Rh factor on the red blood cell's surface. This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh+. Those who haven't are called Rh-. A person with Rh- blood does not have Rh antibodies naturally in the blood plasma (as one can have A or B antibodies, for instance).

But a person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies in the blood plasma if he or she receives blood from a person with Rh+ blood, whose Rh antigens can trigger the production of Rh antibodies. A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from a person with Rh- blood without any problems.

According to above blood grouping systems, you can belong to either of following 8 blood groups: Rh+B (B+) Rh-B (B-) Rh+AB (AB+) Rh-AB (AB-)

Rh+0 (O+)
Rh+A (A+)

Rh-0 (O-)
Rh-A (A-)

Do you know which blood group you belong to?

1. You mix the blood with three different reagents including either of the three different antibodies, A, B or Rh antibodies.

2. Then you take a look at what has happened. In which mixtures has agglutination occurred? The agglutination indicates that the blood has reacted with a certain antibody and therefore is not compatible with blood containing that kind of antibody. If the blood does not agglutinate, it indicates that the blood does not have the antigens binding the special antibody in the reagent.

For a blood transfusion to be successful, AB0 and Rh blood groups must be compatible between the donor blood and the patient blood. If they are not, the red blood cells from the donated blood will clump or agglutinate. The agglutinated red cells can clog blood vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts of the body. The agglutinated red blood cells also crack and its contents leak out in the body. The red blood cells contain hemoglobin which becomes toxic when outside the cell. This can have fatal consequences for the patient.

The A antigen and the A antibodies can bind to each other in the same way that the B antigens can bind to the B antibodies. This is what would happen if, for instance, a B blood person receives blood from an A blood person. The red blood cells will be linked together, like bunches of grapes, by the antibodies. As mentioned earlier, this clumping could lead to death.

Of course you can always give A blood to persons with blood group A, B blood to a person with blood group B and so on. But in some cases you can receive blood with another type of blood group, or donate blood to a person with another kind of blood group.

The transfusion will work if a person who is going to receive blood has a blood group that doesn't have any antibodies against the

donor blood's antigens.

But if a person who is going to receive blood has antibodies matching the donor blood's antigens, the red blood cells in the donated blood will clump.

People with blood group 0 Rh - are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB Rh+ are called "universal receivers."

Some of the most common blood tests are: A complete blood count (CBC) Blood chemistry tests Blood enzyme tests Blood tests to assess heart disease risk

Blood clotting tests

COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT

The CBC is one of the most common blood tests. It's often done as part of a routine checkup.
The CBC can help detect blood diseases and disorders, such as anemia, infections, clotting problems, blood cancers, and immune system disorders.

This test measures many parts of your blood, as discussed in the following paragraphs.

1. Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. Abnormal red blood cell levels might be a sign of anemia, dehydration (too little fluid in the body), bleeding, or another disorder.

2. White Blood Cells

White blood cells are part of your immune system, which fights infections and diseases. Abnormal white blood cell levels might be a sign of infection, blood cancer, or an immune system disorder. A CBC measures the overall number of white blood cells in your blood. A test called a CBC with differential can measure the amounts of different types of white blood cells in your blood.

3. Platelets
Platelets (PLATE-lets) are blood cell fragments that help your blood clot. They stick together to seal cuts or breaks on blood vessel walls and stop bleeding. Abnormal platelet levels might be a sign of a bleeding disorder (not enough clotting) or a thrombotic disorder (too much clotting).

4. Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin (HEE-muh-glow-bin) is an iron-rich protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. Abnormal hemoglobin levels might be a sign of anemia, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia (thal-a-SE-me-ah), or other blood disorders. If you have diabetes, excess glucose (sugar) in your blood can attach to hemoglobin and raise the level of hemoglobin A1c.

5. Hematocrit
Hematocrit (hee-MAT-oh-crit) is a measure of how much space red blood cells take up in your blood. A high hematocrit level might mean you're dehydrated. A low hematocrit level might mean you have anemia. Abnormal hematocrit levels also might be a sign of a blood or bone marrow disorder.

6. Mean Corpuscular Volume

Mean corpuscular (kor-PUS-kyu-lar) volume (MCV) is a measure of the average size of your red blood cells. Abnormal MCV levels might be a sign of anemia or thalassemia.

Blood Chemistry Tests/Basic Metabolic Panel

The basic metabolic panel (BMP) is a group of tests that measures different chemicals in the blood. These tests usually are done on the fluid (plasma) part of blood. The BMP can give doctors information about your muscles (including the heart), bones, and organs (such as the kidneys and liver). The BMP includes blood glucose, calcium, electrolyte, and kidney function tests. Some of these tests require you to fast (not eat any food) before the test, and others don't. Your doctor will tell you how to prepare for the test(s) you're having.

Normal Results
BUN: 7 to 20 mg/dL CO2 (carbon dioxide): 20 to 29 mmol/L Creatinine: 0.8 to 1.4 mg/dL Glucose: 64 to 128 mg/dL Serum chloride: 101 to 111 mmol/L

Serum potassium: 3.7 to 5.2 mEq/L

Serum sodium: 136 to 144 mEq/L

1. Blood Glucose
Glucose is a type of sugar that the body uses for energy. Abnormal glucose levels in your blood might be a sign of diabetes. For some blood glucose tests, you have to fast before your blood is drawn. Other blood glucose tests are done after a meal or at any time with no preparation.

2. Calcium
Calcium is an important mineral in the body. Abnormal calcium levels in the blood might suggest kidney problems, bone disease, thyroid disease, cancer, malnutrition, or another disorder.

3. Electrolytes
Electrolytes are minerals that help maintain fluid levels and acid-base balance in the body. They include sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, and chloride. Abnormal electrolyte levels might be a sign of dehydration, kidney disease, liver disease, heart failure, high blood pressure, or other disorders.

4. Kidney Function
Blood tests for kidney function measure levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (kre-AT-ih-neen). Both of these are waste products that the kidneys filter out of the body. Abnormal BUN and creatinine levels might suggest a kidney disease or disorder.

Blood Enzyme Tests

Enzymes help control chemical reactions in your body. There are many blood enzyme tests. This section focuses on blood enzyme tests used to help diagnose a heart attack. These tests include troponin and creatine (KRE-ah-teen) kinase (CK) tests.

1. Troponin
Troponin is a protein that helps your muscles contract. When muscle or heart cells are injured, troponin leaks out, and its levels in your blood rise. For example, blood levels of troponin rise when you have a heart attack. For this reason, doctors often order troponin tests when patients have chest pain or otherheart attack signs and symptoms.

2. Creatine Kinase
A blood product called CK-MB is released when the heart muscle is damaged. High levels of CK-MB in the blood can mean that you've had a heart attack.

Blood Tests To Assess Heart Disease Risk

A lipoprotein panel is a blood test that can help show whether you're at risk for coronary heart disease (CHD). This test looks at substances in your blood that carry cholesterol.
A lipoprotein panel gives information about your: Total cholesterol.

LDL ("bad") cholesterol. This is the main source of cholesterol

buildup and blockages in the arteries. HDL ("good") cholesterol. This type of cholesterol helps decrease blockages in the arteries.

Triglycerides. Triglycerides are a type of fat in your blood.

A lipoprotein panel measures the levels of LDL and HDL cholesterol and triglycerides in your blood. Abnormal cholesterol or triglyceride levels might be signs of increased risk of CHD. Most people will need to fast for 9 to 12 hours before a lipoprotein panel.

Blood Clotting Tests

Blood clotting tests sometimes are called a coagulation (KO-ag-yu-LA-shun) panel. These tests check proteins in your blood that affect the blood clotting process. Abnormal test results might suggest that you're at risk of bleeding or developing clots in your blood vessels.

Your doctor may recommend these tests if he or she thinks you have a disorder or disease related to blood clotting. Blood clotting tests also are used to monitor people who are taking medicines to lower the risk of blood clots. Warfarin and heparin are two examples of such medicines.