Chapter

TWELVE

Basic Approaches to Leadership

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What Is Leadership?
Leadership

The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals.

Management Use of authority inherent in designated formal rank to obtain compliance from organizational members.

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Introduction
Researchers have been trying to answer these questions for years:
What does it take to be a successful leader? What is the most effective leadership style?

Early studies were based on two theories: Trait Theory (focuses on leader qualities) Behavior Theory (focuses on leader actions)

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Trait Theories
Traits Theories of Leadership

Theories that consider personality, social, physical, or intellectual traits to differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Leadership Traits: Extraversion

Conscientiousness
Openness Emotional Intelligence

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Trait Theories

Limitations:
No universal traits found that predict leadership in all situations.

Unclear evidence of the cause and effect of relationship of leadership and traits.
Better predictor of the appearance of leadership than distinguishing effective and ineffective leaders.

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Trait Approach
Traits (examples)
Extraversion Conscientiousness Openness Emotional Intelligence

Assumption: Leaders are born Goal: Select leaders Problems

Traits do not generalize across situations Better at predicting leader emergence than leader effectiveness

Leadership Trait Theory

Sir Francis Galton
One of the earliest leadership theorists Wrote Hereditary Genius pub. 1869 Believed leadership qualities were genetic

This theory assumes physical and psychological characteristics account for effective leadership
Basic intelligence Clear and strong values High personal energy

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Leadership Trait Theory

Edwin Gheselli identified six traits for effective leadership:
Need for achievement Intelligence Decisiveness Self-confidence Initiative Supervisory ability

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Strength of Trait Approach

Intuitively appealing Century of research to support it Gives us ideas of what we need to look for in our leaders

Weaknesses

Subjective & ambiguous, uncertain at times Fails to take situations into account Too extensive and broad Focus solely on leader and not the outcome of a particular trait

Skills Approach
What leaders can do?

Strengths of Skills Approach

First approach to conceptualize & create a structure of process of leadership around skills Describing leadership in terms of skills makes leadership available to everyone Provides an expansive view of leadership that incorporates wide variety of components (i.e., problem-solving skills, social judgment skills) Provides a structure consistent with leadership education programs

Criticisms of Skills Approach

Breadth of the skills approach appears to extend beyond the boundaries of leadership, making it more general/less precise
Weak in predictive value; does not explain how skills lead to effective leadership performance Skills model includes individual attributes that are trait-like

Application of Skills Approach

The Skills Approach provides a way to delineate the skills of a leader It is applicable to leaders at all levels within the organization The model can be tested with small and large organizations. Skills inventory scores allow leaders to learn about areas in which they may wish to seek further training

Style / Behavioral Approach

How leaders act / behave? Leaders can be trained

Behavioral Theories
Behavioral Theories of Leadership

Theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders.

Behavioral theory: Leadership behaviors can be taught. Vs.

Trait theory: Leaders are born, not made.

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Behavioral Approach
Ohio State Studies/U. of Michigan

Initiating Structure/Production Orientation Consideration/Employee Orientation

Assumption: Leaders can be trained Goal: Develop leaders Problem: Effective behaviors do not generalize across situations

Style / Behavioral Approach

Leadership is composed of two general kinds of behaviours:

Task behaviours: facilitate goal accomplishment by helping group members to achieve their objectives Relationship behaviours: help subordinates feel comfortable with themselves, each other & the situation

Ohio State Studies

Initiating Structure The extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and those of subordinates in the search for goal attainment. Consideration The extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates ideas, and regard for their feelings.
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University of Michigan Studies

Employee-Oriented Leader Emphasizing interpersonal relations; taking a personal interest in the needs of employees and accepting individual differences among members. Production-Oriented Leader One who emphasizes technical or task aspects of the job.

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The Managerial Grid

(Blake and Mouton)

E X H I B I T 121 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Country Club Attention to needs of people, friendly work tempo

Status Quo Middle-of-the-Road Adequate performance while balancing work and employee morale

Fully Functioning Team Work done thru committed people, trust & respect

Impoverished Exertion of minimum effort for required work

Sweat Shop Authority-Compliance Efficiency in results, minimum human elements interference

Managerial Grid
Major management styles and concerns:
Impoverished: low production, low people Sweatshop: high production, low people Country Club: high people, low production

Status Quo: medium production, medium people

Fully Functioning: high production, high people

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Can leaders switch..?

Oh, yes

Paternalism / Maternalism = the benevolent dictator acts nice but is only really interested in the outcome; treats people as if they are dissociated from the task
Opportunism = Uses any combination of the basic five styles for personal advancement

Strengths of Style Approach

Marked a major shift in the general focus of leadership research behaviours Focuses on what leaders did and how they acted rather than personal characteristics. Identified task and relationship behaviours form the core of the leadership process. Provides a broad conceptual map to understand the complexities and provide opportunity to assess actions and subsequently change leadership style.

25

Criticism of Style Approach

Research on styles has not adequately shown how leaders styles are associated with performance outcome Failed to find a universal style of leadership that could be effective in almost every situation. Unclear whether high-high style is the best style in every situation.

26

Application of Style Approach

Style approach applies to nearly everything a leader does. Can be applied at all levels in all types of organizations by: - Questionnaires that assess task and relationship behaviours - Grid seminars

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Situational Approach
Match with subordinates needs

Situational Approach
Centered on the idea that subordinates vacillate along the developmental continuum of competence and commitment Leader effectiveness depends on:

assessing subordinates developmental position adapting his/her leadership style to match subordinate developmental level

(High)
S U P P O R T I V E
B E H A V I O R

(A) THE FOUR LEADERSHIP STYLES

High Supportive and Low Directive Behavior High Directive and High Supportive Behavior

S3 S4
Low Supportive and Low Directive Behavior

S2 S1
High Directive and Low Supportive Behavior

(Low) HIGH

DIRECTIVE BEHAVIOR MODERATE

(High)

LOW

D4
DEVELOPED

D3

D2

D1
DEVELOPING

(B) DEVELOPMENT LEVEL OF FOLLOWER(S)

Levels of Development
D1 - Enthusiastic Beginner D2 - Disillusioned Learner
Low Competence High Commitment
Some Competence Low Commitment Mod-High Competence May Lack Commitment High Competence High Commitment

D3 - Reluctant Contributor D4 - Peak Performer

Levels of Development
D1 - Enthusiastic Beginner Directing S1 D2 - Disillusioned Learner Coaching S2 D3 - Reluctant Contributor Supporting S3 D4 - Peak Performer
Mod-High Competence May Lack Commitment High Competence High Commitment Some Competence Low Commitment

Low Competence High Commitment

Delegating S4

Strengths of Situational Approach

Marketplace approval credible model for training employees to become effective leaders. Practicality straightforward approach that is easily understood and applied in a variety of settings. Prescriptive value clearly outlines what you should and should not do in various settings. Leader flexibility stresses that effective leaders are those who can change their style based on task requirements and subordinate needs. Differential treatment based on the premise that leaders need to treat each subordinate according to his/her unique needs.

Criticisms of Situational Approach

Lack of an published research raises concerns regarding the validity of the approach Further research is required to determine how commitment and competence are conceptualized for each developmental level

Does not account for how particular demographics influence the leader-subordinate prescriptions of the model Fails to adequately address the issue of one-to-one versus group leadership in an organizational setting

Application
Often used in consulting because its easy to conceptualize and apply Straightforward nature makes it practical for managers to apply

Breadth of situational approach facilitates its applicability in virtually all types of organizations and levels of management in organizations

Contingency Theory
Leader Match Theory

CONTINGENCY THEORIES
All Consider the Situation
Fiedlers Contingency Model Cognitive Resource Theory Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Model Path Goal Theory

Assumptions underlying the different models: Fiedler: Leaders style is fixed Others: Leaders style can and should be changed

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Contingency Theory
Most widely recognized one is Fiedlers theory (1964) Fiedler believed that a persons dominant leadership style is a relatively fixed part of his personality, and is therefore difficult to change. Effective leadership is contingent (dependant) on good match between leadership styles and situation.

Situation

Leadership Style

Philosophy
1. 2. All leaders are not effective in all situations If the leadership style is a good match for the situation, then the leader will be effective If the leadership style does not match the situation, then the leader will probably fail

3.

Leadership Styles
(According to Fiedlers Theory)
1. Task Motivated 2. Relationship Motivated

Leadership style assessed through: Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Scale

LPC Score Interpretation

Score 73 or above = Relationship-motivated leader

(High LPC) Score 64 or below = Task-motivated leader

(Low LPC)
Score is 65 to 72 = Mixture of both? (Middle LPC)

Situational Variables
Favorable---------------------Least favorable

1.
2. 3.

Leader-member relations
Task structure Position power

Leader Member Relations

Group atmosphere, Degree of confidence, Loyalty, Attraction

Good Relationship
Group atmosphere is positive Subordinates trust, like and get along with their leader

Bad Relationship
Group atmosphere is unfriendly Friction between subordinates and leader

Task Structure
Highly Structured----------------Low Structure

High Structure
Clearly stated tasks Few alternatives for task accomplishment Task completion can be demonstrated Few correct solutions to task

Low Structure
No set rules to follow Many alternative ways to do a task Can not verify the correctness of task

Position Power
Authority of Leader

Strong
Can reward or punish Can hire or fire Can give raise, rank or pay

Weak
Can not reward or

punish Can not hire or fire Can not give raise, rank or pay

LeaderMember Relations Task Structure Position Power

Contingency Model Good Poor

High Structure
Strong Power 1 Weak Power 2

Low Structure
Strong Power 3

High Structure

Low Structure
Weak Power 8 Low LPCs ( 57 )
Task Motivated

Weak Strong Weak Strong Power Power Power Power 4 5 6 7

Preferred Leadership Style

Low LPCs ( 57 ) Middle LPCs (58 63) Task Motivated

High LPCs ( 64) Relationship Motivated

Strengths of Contingency Theory

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. It is supported by great deal of empirical research It is the first theory to emphasize impact of situation on leaders It is predictive of leadership effectiveness Does not demand that that the leader fit and be effective in every situation Provides useful leadership profile data

Weaknesses of Contingency Theory

1. Does not adequately explain the link between styles and situations Relies on LPC scale, which has a has low face validity and workability Difficult to use in on-going organizations Does not provide a remedy or solution; demands change of the leader / situation!

2.
3. 4.

Application of Contingency Theory

Explain the in-effectiveness of highly conscientious, loyal and hard working leaders in certain situations Predict the effectiveness of a leader on changing him from one position to another in the same institution To make management changes in the organizations to guarantee a good fit between the existing manager and particular work context

Cognitive Resource Theory

Cognitive Resource Theory A theory of leadership that states that the level of stress in a situation is what impacts whether a leaders intelligence or experience will be more effective. Research Support:
Less intelligent individuals perform better in leadership roles under high stress than do more intelligent individuals. Less experienced people perform better in leadership roles under low stress than do more experienced people.
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Contingency Approach: Hersey & Blanchard Situational Model

Considers Leader Behaviors (Task & Relationship)
Assumes Leaders CAN change their behaviors

Considers Followers as the Situation

Follower Task maturity (ability & experience) Follower Psychological maturity (willingness to take responsibility)

Assumptions
Leaders can and should change their style to fit their followers degree of readiness (willingness and ability) Therefore, it is possible to TRAIN leaders to better fit their style to their followers.

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT) A contingency theory that focuses on followers readiness; the more ready the followers (the more willing and able) the less the need for leader support and supervision.

LOW

Amount of Follower Readiness

HIGH

Amount of Leader Support & HIGH Supervision Required

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LOW

Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness (Hersey and Blanchard)

Follower Readiness
Able Unwilling Willing

? Leadership Styles

Unable

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Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness (Hersey and Blanchard)

Follower Readiness
Able Unwilling Willing

? Leadership Styles ?

Unable

Directive

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Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness (Hersey and Blanchard)

Follower Readiness
Able Unwilling Willing

? Leadership Styles

Unable

Directive

High Task and Relationship Orientations

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Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness (Hersey and Blanchard)

Follower Readiness
Able Unwilling Willing

Supportive Participative Leadership Styles

Unable

Directive

High Task and Relationship Orientations

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Leadership Styles and Follower Readiness (Hersey and Blanchard)

Follower Readiness
Able Unwilling Willing

Supportive Participative

Monitoring

Leadership Styles

Unable

Directive

High Task and Relationship Orientations

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LeaderMember Exchange Theory

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory Leaders select certain followers to be in (favorites) Based on competence and/or compatibility & similarity to leader Exchanges with these In followers will be higher quality than with those who are Out

RESULT: In subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and greater job satisfaction

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory

E X H I B I T 123 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Path-Goal Theory
Premise
Leader must help followers attaining goals and reduce roadblocks to success Leaders must change behaviors to fit the situation (environmental contingencies & subordinate contingencies)

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The Path-Goal Theory

E X H I B I T 124 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Leader-Participation Model
Premise: Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when and when not to include subordinate participation in decision making

Considers 12 contingency variables to consider whether or not to include subordinates in decision making

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Contingency Variables in the Revised Leader-Participation Model

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Importance of the decision Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision How well structured the problem is Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment Whether followers buy into the organizations goals Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternatives 8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision 9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement 10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified 11. Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision 12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills
E X H I B I T 125 2007 Prentice Hall Inc. All rights reserved.

Case Studies

Analyze the leadership based on the different approaches you have learnt. Which approach fits best in this case and why? If you were in this position, which leadership approach you should have used? And why?

Chapter Check-Up: Leadership

Which leadership theory (ies) say(s) that a leader cannot be

trained?
Ohio State Model

Fiedlers Contingency Theory

U. Of Michigan Studies Path Goal Theory

All of the above

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Chapter Check-Up: Leadership

Which leadership theory (ies) say(s)
that a leader cannot be trained?
Ohio State Model Fiedlers Contingency Theory U. Of Michigan Studies Path Goal Theory

All of the above

Fielders Contingency Theory is the only one which says a leaders style is fixed and cannot be trained. But, what do all of the theories above have in common?

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Chapter Check-Up: Leadership

What one theory discussed in this chapter could readily explain how leaders often act towards

their followers in Boot Camp and why it may be

very effective?

Hersey and Blanchards Situational Leadership Theory explains

that when followers are unwilling and unable, as many newly enlisted Boot Camp attendees are, the leader should be highly focused on providing task-based behaviors and not relationshipbased behaviors.

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(High)

(A) THE FOUR LEADERSHIP STYLES

Behavior Behavior

B E H A V I O R

Behavior

Behavior

(Low) HIGH

____________BEHAVIOR MODERATE

(High)

LOW
DEVELOPING

DEVELOPED

(B) DEVELOPMENT LEVEL OF FOLLOWER(S)