STS51C-143-0027 Mississippi River Delta and Coastal Louisiana, U.S.A.

January 1985

NASA PHOTO

S T S 61A -42-0051 M ississip p iR iver D elta, L o u isian a, U .S .A . O cto b er 1985

N

20 m i N A S AP H O T O
78

O utline

P etroleumsystem s G eologic principles and geologic tim e R ock and m inerals, rock cycle, reservoir properties H ydrocarbon origin, m igration and accum ulation S edim entary environm ents; stratigraphic traps P late tectonics, structural geology S tructural traps G eophysical m ethods Im portance to S chlum berger

C ro ss S ectio nO f AP etro leu mS ystem

(F o relan dB asin E xam p le)
G eographic E xtent of P etroleumS ystem E xtent of P lay R R eserv o ir

S tratigraphic E xtent of P etroleum S ystem

R eservo ir R o ck S o u rce R o ck U n d erb u rd en R o ck

A ctiv e S o u rce R o ck
P etro leu mR eservo ir (R )

B asem en tR o ck F o ld -an d -T h ru st B elt (arro w s in d icate relative fau lt m o tio n )

(m odified fromM agoon and D ow , 1994)
4

T o pO il W in d o w T o pG as W in d o w

Sedimentary Basin Fill

E ssen tial E lem en ts o f P etro leu m S y stem

O verb u rd en R o ck S eal o rC ap [R o ck

Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely convergence of certain geologic factors and geologic events.

These Include: Seal or cap rock Reservoir rock Migration Mature source rock

Petroleum Geology

Law of cross-cutting relationships. In the figure above, the igneous dike (F) is younger than layers A-E but older than layer G, because a geologic feature is younger than any other geologic feature that it cuts. This is an important law for determining the relative ages of geologic features. According to the Law of Superposition, layer I is older than layer J, and the rocks beneath the unconformity are older from right to left. From the Principle of Original Horizonality, we infer that layers A through F have been deformed. Sedimentary rock are deposited in successive layers that record the history of their time, much like the pages in history book. However, the rock record is never complete. Missing layers (gaps in time) result in unconformities. An unconformity is a surface of non-deposition or erosion that separates younger rocks from older rocks. The slide shows an angular unconformity. A nonconformity is an unconformity in which younger sedimentary rocks overlie older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks

The following are basic principles or laws are used to evaluate the relative ages and the relations among rock layers. Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. By studying modern geologic processes, we can interpret past geologic events and rock-forming processes. Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. If sedimentary layers are tilted or folded, they have been subjected to deforming stresses. Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.

C ross-C utting R elationships

K J I H G
A ngular U nconform ity

C E D
Sill s u o Igne
Igneous D ike

F B A

G eologic T im eC hart
E o n
0
P h an ero zo ic

E ra P erio d
0 50
Q u atern ary

E p o ch
0 Pleistocene 10
R ecen t

T ertiary

P lio cen e

Billions of years ago

Millions of years ago

Millions of years ago

Cenozoic Era

Mesozoic

100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600

C retaceo u s

io cen e 20 M
30 O lig o cen e 40 50 aleo cen e 60 P

Cryptozoic (Precambrian)

Ju rassic T riassic P erm ian

P en n sylvan ian M ississip p ian

E o cen e

4.6

Paleozoic

D evo n ian
S ilu rian

O rd ov ician

C am b rian

Tertiary period

Quaternary period

Geologic Time Scale - Biostratigraphy

Triassic period Permian period Jurassic period Pennsylvanian period Mississippian period

208 m.y 146 m.y

245 m.y

290 m.y

323 m.y 363 m.y

409 m.y

vonian period

439 m.y 65 m.y 57 m.y 510 m.y

rian period

1 b.y

570 m.y 35 m.y

Evolution of cells with nucleus

23 m.y

2 b.y

5 m.y

3 b.y
0.01 million years ago

Oldest fossil cells

4.6 billion years ago

4 b.y

ERA PERIOD EPOCH

Holocene epoch

Oldest rocks dated on Earth

B asic G eologic P rinciples

U niform itarianism- T he present is the key to the past. O riginal H orizonality - S edim entary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. S uperposition - Y ounger sedim entary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. C ross-C utting R elations - A ny geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.

The Rock Cycle

Magma

Metamorphic Rock

Heat and Pressure

Igneous Rock
n a

Sedimentary Rock

Weathering, Transportation and Deposition i

Sediment

D epositional E nvironm ents

T he depositional environm ent can be: S hallow or deep w ater. M arine (sea) and lake or continental. T his environm ent determ ines m any of the reservoir characteristics

Frigg G as Field - N orth Sea

18

D epositional E nvironm ents

C ontinental deposits are usually dunes. A shallow m arine environm ent has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite form ation. A deep m arine environm ent produces fine sedim ents.

19

C lastic R eservoirs

C onsolidated and unconsolidate sands P orosity

D eterm ined m ainly by the packing and m ixing of grains.

P erm eability

D eterm ined m ainly by grain size and packing, connectivity and shale content.

F ractures m ay be present.

21

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

Breccia Conglomerate

Example

Sandstone

Shale

 Some sedimentary rock types Breccia - Coarse-grained, angular fragments - little transport; Conglomerate - Coarse-grained, mixture of rounded pebbles and sand ranging widely in size; well rounded pebbles imply some transport in a high energy system Sandstone - commonly quartz, feldspar, or rock fragments; deposited in many environments Shale - very fine grained; composed primarily of clay; deposited in low-energy environments such as lakes, bays, lagoons, of deep marine settings

C lastic R ocks
C lastic rocks are sands, silts and shales. T he difference is in the size of the grains.

Size ??
24

A verage D etrital M ineral C om position of S hale and S andstone

M in eral C o m p o sition S h ale (% )
C lay M in erals Q u artz F eld sp ar R o ck F ragm en ts C arb on ate O rg an ic M atter, H em atite, an d O th er M in erals 60 30 4 <5 3 <3

S an d sto n e (% )
5 65 10-15 15 <1 <1
(m odified fromB latt, 1982)
23

S edim entation

25

C lastic S edim entary E nvironm ents

E nv iro n m en t A gen tO fT ran sp o rtatio n D ep o sitio n R iv ers L ake cu rren ts, w av es W in d Ice R iv er + w av es, tid es W av es, tid es W av es, tid es O cean cu rren ts, settlin g S ed im en ts S an d ,g rav el, m u d S an d ,m u d S an d ,d u st S an d ,g rav el, m u d S an d ,m u d S an d ,g rav el S an d ,m u d S an d ,M u d

A llu vial L ake D esert G lacial D elta B each S h allo wsh elf D eep sea

O rganic M aterial =
27

D epositional E nvironm ent - D elta

S edim ents are transported to the basins by rivers. A com m on depositional environm ent is the delta w here the river em pties into the sea. Ag o o d exam p le o f th is is th eM ississip p i (M io cen e an dO ligo cen e san d s)

28

R ivers

S om e types of deposition occur in rivers and sand bars. T he river form s a channel w here sands are deposited in layers. R ivers carry sedim ent dow n fromthe m ountains w hich is then deposited in the river bed and on the flood plains at either side. C hanges in the environm ent can cause these sands to be overlain w ith a shale, trapping the reservoir rock.
29

S andstone C om position F ram ew ork G rains

M atrix
Q tz Q u artz

Fram ew ork
Q tz Q u artz

Pores
Q tz Q tz Q tz Q u artz A nkerite

C em ent
31

P orosity in S andstone
P o re T h ro at

P o res P ro vid e th e V o lu m e to C o n tain H yd ro carb o nF lu id s P o re T h ro ats R estrict F lu id F lo w

S can n in gE lectro nM icro grap h N o rp h let F o rm atio n ,O ffsh o re A lab am a, U S A

32

C lay M inerals in Sandstone R eservoirs Fibrous A uthigenic Illite

S eco n d ary E lectro nM icro g rap h
S ig n ifican t P erm eab ility R ed u ctio n N eg lig ib le P o ro sity R ed u ctio n H ig h Irred u cib le W ater S atu ratio n M ig ratio no f F in es P ro b lem
Ju rassic N o rp h let S an d sto n e H atters P o n dF ield ,A lab am a, U S A

Illite

(P h o to g rap h by R .L .K u g ler)
33

C lay M inerals in Sandstone R eservoirs A uthigenic C hlorite

S eco n d ary E lectro nM icro g rap h
Iro n -R ich V arieties R eact W ith A cid O ccu rs in S everal D eep ly B u ried S an d sto n es W ith H ig hR eservo ir Q u ality O ccu rs as T h in C o ats o nD etrital G rain S u rfaces

34

C lay M inerals in Sandstone R eservoirs A uthigenic K aolinite

S eco n d ary E lectro nM icro g rap h

S ig n ificant P erm eab ility R ed u ction H ig h Irred ucib le W ater S atu ratio n

M ig ratio n of F in es P ro b lem

C arter S an d ston e N o rth B lo w h o rn C reek O il U n it B lack W arrio rB asin ,A lab am a, U S A

(P h o to g rap h by R .L .K u g ler)
35

E ffects of C lays on R eservoir Q uality

A u th ig en ic Illite
100

A u th ig en ic C h lo rite
1000 100 10

Permeability (md)

10

1 1 0.1 0.1 0.01 2 6 10 14 2 6 10 14 18

0.01

P o ro sity (% )
(m o d ified fro mK ug ler an dM cH u g h , 1990)
36

C arbonate R eservoirs

C arbonates (lim estone and dolom ite) norm ally have a very irregular structure. P orosity:

D eterm ined by the type of shells, etc. and by depositional and post-depositional events (fracturing, leaching, etc.).

P erm eability:

D eterm ined by deposition and post-deposition events, fractures.

F ractures can be very im portant in carbonate reservoirs.

37

C arbonate types

C halk is a special formof lim estone (C aC O 3) and is form ed fromthe skeletons of sm all creatures (cocoliths). D olom ite (C aM g(C O 3)2) is form ed by the replacem ent of som e of the calciumby a lesser volum e of m agnesiumin lim estone. M agnesiumis sm aller than calcium , hence the m atrix becom es sm aller and m ore porosity is created.

???

E vaporites such as S alt (N aC l) and A nhydrite (C aS O 4) can also formin these environm ents.

??
38

D epositional E nvironm ent C arbonates

C arbonates are form ed in shallow seas containing features such as: R eefs. Lagoons. S hore-bars.

39

D iagenesis

T he environm ent can also involve subsequent alterations of the rock such as:

C hem ical changes. D iagenesis is the chem ical alteration of a rock after burial. A nexam ple is the replacem ent of som e of the calciumatom s in lim estone by m agnesiumto form dolom ite.

M echanical changes - fracturing in a tectonically-active region.

40

S ource R ocks

H ydrocarbon originates fromm inute organism s in seas and lakes. W hen they die, they sink to the bottomw here they form organic-rich "m uds" in fine sedim ents. T hese "m uds" are in a reducing environm ent or "kitchen", w hich strips oxygen fromthe sedim ents leaving hydrogen and carbon. T he sedim ents are com pacted to formorganic-rich rocks w ith very low perm eability. T he hydrocarbon can m igrate very slow ly to nearby porous rocks, displacing the original form ation w ater.

42

H ydrocarbon M igration

H ydrocarbon m igration takes place in tw o stages: P rim ary m igration - fromthe source rock to a porous rock. T his is a com plex process and not fully understood. It is probably lim ited to a few hundred m etres. S econdary m igration - along the porous rock to the trap. T his occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynam ics through a continuous w ater-filled pore system . It can take place over large distances.

43

Structural Hydrocarbon Traps

Shale Oil Gas

Trap

Oil/Gas Contact Oil/Water Contact Oil

Closure

Fracture Basement

Fold Trap

Salt Dome

Salt Diapir

Oil

(modified from Bjorlykke, 1989)

O rg an ic M atter in S ed im en tary R o cks

K ero g en
D issem in ated O rg an ic M atter in S ed im en tary R o cks T h at is In so lu b le in O xid izin gA cid s, B ases, an d O rg an ic S o lv en ts.

V itrin ite

V itrin ite
An o n flu o rescen t typ eo fo rg an ic m aterial in p etro leu mso u rce ro cks d eriv ed p rim arily fro mw o o d ym aterial. T h e reflectiv ity o fv itrin ite is o n eo f th e b est in d icato rs o f co al ran k an d th erm al m atu rity o fp etro leu mso u rce ro ck.

R eflected -L ig h tM icro g rap h o fC o al

44

Interpretation of T otal O rganic C arbon (TO C ) (based on early oil w indow m aturity)
H yd ro carb o n G en eratio n P o ten tial P oor F air G ood V ery G ood E xcellent T O C in S h ale (w t. % ) 0.0 - 0 . 5 0.5 - 1 . 0 1.0 - 2 . 0 2.0 - 5 . 0 >5.0 T O C in C arb o n ates (w t. % ) 0.0 - 0 . 2 0.2 - 0 . 5 0.5 - 1 . 0 1.0 - 2 . 0 >2.0
45

Basic Elements of Plate Tectonics

DIVERGENT BOUNDARY: Seafloor spreading Mid-ocean ridge Oceanic crust Lithosphere CONVERGENT BOUNDARY: Plate subduction Volcanism
Mountain building

Continental crust

Magma rising

Asthenosphere
Magma forming

Distribution of
earthquakes

Sedim entary B asin and Stress F ields

F au lt Types B asin G eom etries R ift R elated B asin (E xtensional Stress) N orm al fault S ed im entary F ill

F oreland B asin (C om pressive Stress) T hrust fault P ull-apart B asin (L ateral Stress) W rench fault
48

F olded S tructures
C onvex upw ard

?? A ge

A nticline

Syncline

50

 Definitions
A fold is a bend in the strata. An anticline is a fold that is convex upward. The oldest beds occur in the center of an anticline. A syncline is a fold that is concave upward. The youngest beds occur in the center of a syncline. A monocline (not shown) is composed of strata that dip in one direction and are not known to form a flank of an anticline.

F old T erm inology

N
b Lim

A nticline S yncline M odified fromxxx) Y oungest rock O ldest rock

b Lim

b Lim

51

Faulting

Strike Slip F ault

(L eft L ateral)

Str ike

D ip A n g le

F ault P lane
54

G eologic R eservoir H eterogeneity

56

S cales of G eological R eservoir H eterogeneity

W ell
D eterm ined F romW ell Logs, S eism ic Lines, S tatistical M odeling, etc. 1-10 km Interw ell A rea

W ell

Field Wide

100's m

Interwell

R eservoir S andstone
100's m

10's m

Well -Bore

10-100's m

10-100's m m

1-10's m

P etrographic or S canning E lectron M icroscope

H and Lens or B inocular M icroscope

U naided E ye

(m odified fromW eber, 1986)

57

H ydrocarbon T raps

S tructural traps S tratigraphic traps C om bination traps

58

T raps G eneral

G haw ar O ilfield - Saudi A rabia- L s - 145 m i x 13 m iw ide x260 ft produces 11,000 b/d total 82B bbls G asharan O ilfield - Iran - L s - 6000ft. N et pay total 8.5 B bbls

59

Structural H ydrocarbon T raps

Shale O il G as T rap O il/G as C ontact O il/W ater C ontact O il C losure

Seal

F racture B asem ent

F old T rap

Salt D om e

Salt D iapir

O il

(m odified fromB jorlykk e, 1989)

60

F ault T raps

F aults occur w hen the rock shears due to stresses. R eservoirs often formin these fault zones. A porous and perm eable layer m ay trap fluids due to its location alongside an im perm eable fault or its juxtaposition alongside an im perm eable bed. F aults are found in conjunction w ith other structures such as N orm al or R everse Fault??? anticlines, dom es and salt dom es.

D rag Faults - W yom ing, m ost R ocky M ountains

N orm al F aults - N igeria, H ibenia (E. C anada), V icksburg T rends (V ictoria, T X )

61

S tratigraphic T raps
M ichigan - B elle R iver M ills D evonian reefs (B arriers and A tolls) A lberta C A . (Leduc &R edw ater) M idland B asin & D elaw are B asin of W est T X- B arrier R eefs

Point B ars - Pow der R iver B asin, W Y ,C linton SS in W estern O k,

62

P etroleumE xplorationG eophysical M ethods

G ravity m ethods M agnetic surveys S eism ic surveys

64

P rinciple of G ravity S urveys

U n co rrected G rav ity +1 G rav ity -1 V alu e (m g al) -2 -3

C o rrected G rav ity (B o u g u er A n om aly) M eter

C lastics 3 2.4 g m /cm

S alt 3 2.1 g m /cm

65

S eism ic S urveys
T he seism ic tools com m only used in the oil and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seism ic data S eism ic data are used to:

D efine and m ap structural folds and faults Identify stratigraphic variations and m ap sedim entary facies Infer the presence of hydrocarbons

67

C rossline 470 (E ast)

N
Seal (unconform ity) R eservoirs

Source

70

A pplications of S eism ic D ata

M ake a structural m odel of the reservoir D elineate and m ap reservoir-quality rocks E stablish gas/w ater contacts

71

S tru ctu ral M ap ,V L E 196 F ield

00 26 -1

-1 30 00

-1 28 00

-1 2600

S tru ctu ral interp retatio n b ased o n 3-D seism ic an dw ell log d ata
-1 24 00

1 2 6 0 0

-12400

-1 22 00

-124 00

00 26 -1

-11600

-1 1400

1
0 8 2 -1 0

00 24

S ea-level datum

11,400 -11,600 -11,600 -12,000 -12,000 -12,400 -12,400 -12,800 -12,800 -13,200 0 0

-11600

T o pM iso aC -4 S an d E levation (ft) N

1 6 -1 0 0

-11800

-12400

-1 26

00

-1

-120

0 0 8 2

00

-12 400

3000 ft 1000 m

0 0 4 2 -1

-12

0 0 6

-1 30 00

00 VLE 4 Fault

72
0 0 8 2 1 -

C hannels

Seism ic A m plitude M ap of a H orizon

3-DSeism ic data define reservoirquality,channel-fill sand deposits

M odified fromB row n, 1996

73

F luid Level B oundaries on 3-D D ata

N ot Interpreted Interpreted

F lat spot on seism ic line indicates petroleum/ w ater contact

F ault
M odified fromB row n, 1996
74

Exercise 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Oil forms at lower temperatures than gas. T_____ F ______ The law of (original horizontality, uniformitarianism, superpos ition) states that, in a normal sedimentary sequence, younger layers occur on top of older layer s. The largest division of geologic time is the (era, eon, period, epoch). Hydrocarbons are most abundant in (metamorphic, igneous, sedimen tary) rocks. The most abundant sedimentary rock type is shale. T____ F ____ __ Name 3 clay minerals common in sandstone reservoirs A. _____________________ B.____________________
7.

C. _________ ___________

Clastic rocks are formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of erosion, transportation and __________________. Clastic rocks are sedimentary. T___ F____

8.

9.

Name two non -clastic sedimentary rocks. A.______________ B.________________

Alluvial, desert, delta, beach and shallow shelf sediment make he t best reservoirs T_______ F_______

10.

E xercise 2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. D iagenesis is the chem ical alteration of a rock after burial. T ___ F ___ (M agnesium , Iron, or S ulfate) m ust be in the form ation w ater in order to convert lim estone to dolom ite. Lim estone is (C aC O 3 or C a(C O 3)2). D olom ite is M gC aC O 3 or M gC a(C O 3)2. R eef deposits are classified as (clastic, carbonate) sedim entaryrocks. T he source rock m ust contain (organic m aterial, coal, m ethane). F ault and anticline traps occur only in gas w ells. T ___ F ___ T he oil w ater contact can be observed using seism ic T ___ F ___ (H istorical, structural, tectonic) geology addresses the occurrence and origin of sm aller scale deform ational features, such as folds and faults, that m ay be involved in hydrocarbon m igration or w hich m ay formstructural hydrocarbon traps. G ood quality sandstone reservoirs norm ally contain ~ (1-10 or 25-30%silt and clay).

10.

81

E xercise 3
N
W ell 4 3 4 3 4

2 1

b
W ell

d
82

 Circle the correct answer or label the drawing as directed.

1. Figure a is a (normal, strike-slip, lateral) fault. 2. If a well is drilled as shown on block a the target sandstone will most likely be missing. T ___ F ___ 3. Figure b is a(n) (lateral fold, anticline, syncline). 4. In Figure b, layer 1 = salt, 2 = sandstone, 3 = shale, and 4=limestone. On the figure, indicate the layer that is most likely have trapped hydrocarbon. 5. Figure c is a(n) (right, left) lateral fault. 6. On Figure d, the structure is a (normal fault, reverse, strike-slip) fault. 7. A well drilled at the location shown on Figure d will find strata (repeated, missing).

E xercise 4
1.

H ydrocarbons reservoirs are norm ally in (igneous, m etam orphic, sedim entary) rocks. F luorescence of drill cuttings or core indicates (oil, gas, w ater) is present. R eservoir traps are (very im perm eable, highly perm eable). W hat are 2 uses of seism ic data in petroleumexploration and developm ent?
1. 2.

2.

3. 3.

________________________________________________ _________________________________________________

4.

In inclined reservoir rocks, w hat is the significance of a flat spot in seism ic sections? W hat is a 4-D seism ic evaluation?

5.

83

B asic G eologic P rinciples

U niform itarianism- T he present is the key to the past. O riginal H orizonality - S edim entary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. S uperposition - Y ounger sedim entary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. C ross-C utting R elations - A ny geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.

 The following are basic principles or laws are used to evaluate the relative ages and the relations among rock layers. Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. By studying modern geologic processes, we can interpret past geologic events and rock-forming processes. Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. If sedimentary layers are tilted or folded, they have been subjected to deforming stresses. Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.

KLASIFIKASI BATUAN
Batuan merupakan agregat padat yang terdiri dari mineral atau mineraloid, kebanyakan batuan terdiri atas beberapa jenis mineral (mineral, gelas, ubahan mineral organik, dan kombinasi dari komponen-komponen tersebut) (Ernest G. Ehlers & Harvey Blatt, 1980). Batuan didefinisikan juga sebagai kumpulan mineral alamiah yang terkristalkan oleh proses pembentukan batuan (Huckenholz, 1982).

BERDASARKAN GENESA DAN KOMPOSISI

Batuan Beku Batuan Piroklastik Batuan Sedimen Batuan Metamorf

Distribusi batuan di bumi :

Batuan beku di kerak bumi bagian atas Batuan sedimen di permukaan Batuan metamorf di inti dalam, mantel, kerak bumi bagian bawah

BATUAN BEKU
Batuan beku adalah batuan yang terbentuk akibat membekunya magma pada waktu perjalannya menuju ke permukaan bumi. Hasil dari pembekuan magma tersebut membentuk berbagai jenis mineral yang mengikuti aturan tingkat diferensiasi dari magma. Magma adalah cairan silikat yang panas dan pijar yang terdiri atas unsur-unsur O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K dan sebagainya.

 Komposisi batuan beku dapat dibedakan dari komposisi secara mineralogi.:

Mineral utama (olivin, piroksen, felspar, kuarsa, plagioklas, dsb) Mineral tambahan: mineral yang terbentuj dari kristalisasi magma tapi kehadirannya sedikit (contoh: apatit, rutil, mineral bijih, dsb) Mineral sekunder: mineral hasil ubahan dari mineral-mineral primer (contoh: klorit, epidot, dll)

Kimiawi Unsur utama (major element): seperti unsur oksoda SiO2, Al2O3, dll. Unsur jejak (trace element): seperti Sr, Rb, Ba, dll. Unsur tanah jarang (rare earth element): seperti La, Ce, Pr, dll.

Klasifikasi batuan beku:

Pada dasarnya klasifikasi batuan beku didasarkan pada tekstur dan mineralogi.

a. Berdasarkan tekstur: IUGS (International Union of Geological Sciences) membagi batuan beku berdasarkan pada besar butir:
Batuan fanerik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan plutonik, dimana butirannya kasar, sehingga secara individu dapat dibedakan, berbutir kasar-sedang (> 1 mm). Kristal-krital yang lebih besar (fenokris) tertanam dalam masa dasar yang lebih halus (Gambar 2). Klasifikasi batuan fanerik dilakukan oleh IUGS, 1973 (Gambar 3). Batuan afanitik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan vulkanik, dimana ukuran mineralnya terlalu kecil untuk dibedakan, umumnya berbutir haus (< 1mm). Klasifikasi batuan ini dapat dilihat pada Gambar 4.

Berdasarkan mineralogi (Gambar 5) Dasar klasifikasi: Komposisi (%) mineral utama Kimiawi:
silika (% SiO2) : ultrabasa (SiO2 < 45%)

basa (SiO2 45 52%) intermediate (SiO2 52 66%) asam (SiO2 > 66%)
alumina saturation
peralumina : jenuh terhadap alumina (Al2O3 > Na2O + K2O +CaO) peralkaline : oksida alkalin > oksida alumina subalumina : oksida alumina =/> oksida alkalin (Na2O + K2O) metalumina : oksida alumina =/> Na2O + K2O +CaO

color index proporsi mineral felsik dan mafik

Batuan Piroklastik adalah batuan hasil letusan gunungapi. Terdiri atas material-material piroklastik, yaitu pecahan gelas/abu/debu gunungapi, kristal, lithik. Klasifikasi batuan piroklastik: Pada dasarnya pembagian batuan piroklastik didasarkan pada ukuran butir. Penamaan: tuf, tuf lapili, breksi piroklastik atau breksi vulkanik (Gambar 6). Untuk yang berbutir halus (<4 mm): tuff gelas, tuf kristal, tuf lithik (Tabel 1).

UKURAN CLAST (PECAHAN) > 64 mm

PIROKLAS

ENDAPAN PIROKLASTIK Lapisan bom/blok atau tefra bom/blok Lapisan lapili atau tefra lapili Debu kasar Debu halus

NAMA BATUAN

Bomb Block Lapillus / Lapili Butiran debu kasar Butiran debu halus

Aglomerat, breksi piroklastik Lapillitone / tuf lapili Tuf debu kasar Tuf debu halus

2 - 64 mm < 2 1/16 mm < 1/16 mm

 Selain batuan piroklastik ini juga dikenal batuan epiklastik, yaitu batuan yang terbentuk dari campuran atau rombakan material-material batuan piroklastik (vulkanik) (Gambar 7). Contoh: batupasir vulkanik, tuf pasiran, dll.

BATUAN SEDIMEN
Batuan sedimen adalah batuan yang berasal dari rombakan batuan yang telah ada yang telah mengalami siklus sedimentasi (pelapukan-transportasisedimentasi-diagenesa) (Gambar 9).

 Komposisi batuan sedimen:

Fragmen mineral/batuan hasil rombakan (terigen) Material hasil proses kimiawi (material auttigenik), contoh: karbonat, fosfat. Material allochem (rombakan hasil presipitasi terdahulu), contoh: fosil, mineral organik, dll.

 Penggolongan batuan sedimen Batuan sedimen dapat diklasifikasikan berdasarkan beberapa cara:
Berdasarkan proses pembentukannya (Gambar 10): Sedimentasi mekanis, contoh batulanau, batulempung, batupasir, dll. Sedimentasi organis, contoh batubara, batugamping terumbu, batugamping bioklastik, dll Sedimentasi kimiawi, contoh batugamping kristalin, dolomit, batugamping oolith, gips, anhidrit, dll.

?B e r d a s a r k a n a s a l u s u l n y a : K l a s t i k t e r i g e n o u s E n d a p a n b i o k i m i a P e n g e n d a p a n V o l k a n i k l a s t i k b i o g e n i k o r g a n i k k i m i a R u d i t ,a r e n i t ,l u t i t B a t u g a m p i n g , I r o n s t o n e s , T u f a ,a g l o m e r a t d o l o m i t , r i j a n g ,e v a p o r i t f o s f a t ,b a t u b a r a

Batuan Sedimen Berdasarkan Tekstur

Berdasarkan teksturnya dibagi menjadi dua, yaitu yang bertekstur klastik (berdasarkan mekanisme pengendapan), dan batuan yang bertekstur non klastik (kristalin).

 Batuan Sedimen Klastik

Terdiri atas material detritus (hasil rombakan / pecahan), memperlihatkan tekstur klastik. Ukuran butir halus kasar (Gambar 11), dibagi berdasarkan skala yang dinyatakan oleh Wentworth (Gambar 12).

Unsur-unsur tekstur batuan sedimen klastik:

Butiran (grain) : klastik yang tertransport yang disebut sebagai fragmen. Matriks (masa dasar) : lebih halus dari fragmen/butiran, mengisi rongga antar fragmen, diendapkan bersama-sama dengan fragmen. Semen : berukuran halus, mengikat butiran/fragmen dan matriks, diendapkan ditempat sedimentasi setelah fragmen dan matriks. Pemilahan (sorting) : derajat kesamaan atau keseragaman butir. Dinyatakan dalam skala baik, sedang, atau buruk. Porositas : perbandingan volume pori terhadap volume batuan secara keseluruhan. Biasanya dinyatakan dalam % atau dalam kualitas (baik, sedang atau buruk). Batuan dengan butir yang seragam (terpilah baik) akan mempunyai porositas yang relatif lebih besar dari batuan dengan pemilahan buruk. Clay memiliki porositas yang paing besar, lalu batupasir dan kemudian breksi atau konglomerat. Kebundaran : menyatakan kebundaran atau ktajaman butiran yang mencerminkan tingkat abrasi selama transportasi. Merupakan sifat permukaan dari butiran yang disebabkan oleh pengaruh transportasi terhadap butiran. Kemas (fabric) : merupakan sifat hubungan antar butir sebagai fungsi orientasi atau packing. Dinyatakan dalam skala terbuka (kontak antar butiran tidak bersentuhan) dan tertutup (kontak antar butiran saling bersentuhan). Permeabilitas : kemampuan batuan meloloskan fluida, yang mencerminkan poriyang saling berhubungan. Batupasir merupakan batuan dengan permeabilitas yang baik, sedangkan clay walaupun memiliki porositas baik tapi permeabilitasnya yang buruk. Karena mineral dalam clay termasuk kedalam minera pirosilika yang bersifat konduktif, sehingga clay ini mengikat kation yang akan mengikat OH. Oleh karena itu clay memiliki sifat swelling (dapat mengembang bila terkena air), yang menyebabkan resistivity dari clay ini sangat rendah (Gambar 13). Struktur sedimen : penyimpangan dari bidang perlapisan. Struktur sedimen ini mencerminkan mekanisme yang mempengaruhi pengendapan batuan sedimen. Contoh: strutur sedimen pada mekanisme arus turbidit yang dinyatakan oleh Bouma dalam Sikuen Bouma.

Batuan Sedimen Non-Klastik

Umumnya tersusun atas mineral autigenik (terbentuk di tempat sedimentasi). Pada P dan T tertentu seringkali memperlihatkan gejala diagenesa, akibatnya porositas batuan menjadi sangat rendah atau bakhan tidak ada. Porositas primer rendah dan memperlihatkan tekstur mozaik (contoh batugamping). Kadangkadang terdapat butiran yang amorf (seperti kalsedon dan opal) sebagai semen.

Batuan Sedimen Kimiawi

Terbentuk akibat peranan/pengaruh proses-proses kimia dari larutan. Terdiri atas batuan karbonat dan batuan evaporit.

Batuan Karbonat
Batuan karbonat adalah batuan sedimen yang mempunyai komposisi garam-garam karbonat yang dominan (> 50%). Proses pembentukannya dapat secara insitu, berasal dari larutan yang mengalami proses kimiawi maupun biokimiawi. Komposisi kimia dan mineralogi batuan karbonat:
Aragonit (CaCO3 orthorombik) Kalsit (CaCO3 hexagonal) Dolomit (CaMg(CO3)2) Magnesit (Mg CO3)

Porositas batuan karbonat:

Ada dua macam klasifikasi porositas dalam batuan karbonat: menurut Murray (1960) merupakan klasifikasi berdasarkan pada genesa, dibagi menjadi:
Porositas primer : terbentuk pada saat sedimentasi berlangsung. Terdiri atas porositas kerangka framework porosity), porositas lumpur (mud porosity), dan porositas pasir (sand porosity). Porositas sekunder : terbentuk setelah pengendapan, akibat pelarutan, rekahan atau perubahan yang terjadi setelah proses sedimentasi. Sucrose dolomite porosity : terbentuk sebagai akibat adanya penggantian kalsit oleh dolomit.

menurut Choquette anfd Pray (1970) merupakan klasifikasi deskriptif dan genetik. Unsur-0unsurnya terdiri atas:
Basic porosity types:
fabric selective : interpartikel, intrapartikel, interkristalin, moldic, fenestral, shelter, growth framework. Non fabric selective : fracture, channel, vuggy, cavern Fabric selective or not : breccia, boring, burrow, shrinkage.

Modifying terms : genetic modifiers, size modifiers, abundance modifiers.

Klasifikasi batuan karbonat

Klasifikasi dalam batuan karbonat antara lain dikemukakan oleh Grabau (1913), Folk (1953), Pettijohn (1957), Dunham (1962), Embry and Klovan (1972), dll. Klasifikasi yang banyak digunakan dalam penggolongan batuan karbonat adalah klasifikasi menurut Dunham, dan Embry and Klovan, karena klasifikasi ini cukup sederhana dan mudah dalam pemnakaiannya.

Klasifikasi Dunham (1962)

Klasifikasi ini didasarkan pada tekstur pengendapan (Gambar 17). Faktor yang penting dalam klasifikasi ini adalah: Butiran didukung lumpur (mud supported) Butiran saling menyangga (grain supported) Sebagian butiran didukung lumpur, sebagian butiran saling menyangga (parteil)

Klasifikasi Embry and Klovan (1972)

Merupakan modifikasi dari klasifikasi Dunham, didasarkan pada terdapatnya lumpur diantara kerangka atau pecahan kerangka (Gambar 14).

Batuan Evaporit
Merupakan batuan garam yang terbentuj jarena evaporasi air laut.. Mineral penyusunnya bersifat monomineralik, antara lain: garam (CaSO4 2H2O), anhidrit (CaSO4), dan halit (NaCl)

BATUAN METAMORF
Batuan metamorf adalah batuan yang terbentuk akibat proses perubahan tekanan (P) dan temperatur (T) atau keduanya, dimana batuan memasuki kesetimbangan baru tanpa adanya perubahan komposisi kimia (isokimia) dan tanpa melalui fasa cair (dalam keadaan padat) dengan temperatur berkisar 200-800 C.

Perubahan yang terjadi dalam proses metamorfosa: perubahan tekstur dan struktur (yang merefleksikan sejarah pembentukkannya); dan asosiasi mineral. Struktur batuan metamorf: Struktur foliasi (schistosity) struktur paralel yang ditimbulkan oleh mineral pipih/mineral prismatik, seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa regional dan metamorfosa kataklastik. Struktur non foliasi struktur yang dibentuk oleh mineral-mineral yang equidimensional, seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa termal.

Beberapa struktur batuan metamorf:

Yang bersifat foliasi: Slaty cleavage planar, dijumpai bidang belah batu sabak/slate. Filitik rekristalisasi lebih kasar dari slaty cleavage. Shistose struktur perulangan dari mineral pipih dan mineral granular dimana mineral pipih orientasinya menerus (tidak terputus). Gneisose struktur perulangan dari mineral pipih dan mineral granular dimana mineral pipih orientasinya terputus, sering disebut close schistosity. Milonitik menunjukan goresan-goresan akibat penggerusan yang kuat. Filonitik gejala dan kenampakan sama dengan milonitik, hanya disini butirannya lebih halus.

Yang bersifat non foliasi:

Granulose terdiri atas mineral granular Hornfelsik identik dengan granoblastik, tapi mineral equidimensional. Lepidoblastik terdiri atas mineral pipih/tabular Nematoblastik terdiri atas mineral prismatik Granoblastik terdiri atas mineral granular Homeoblastik terdiri atas satu tekstur saja Heteroblastik terdiri atas beberapa tekstur Relic (sisa) tekstur sisa yang terbentuk sebelum metamorfosa Kristaloblastik setiap tekstur yang terbentuk pada saat metamorfosa Awalan meta bila masih dikenali sifat batuan asalnya, seperti metasedimen, metavolkanik, dll.

CONTINENTAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Copyright ALLUVIAL FAN Rock Type Breccia, conglomerate, arkose Terrigenous FLUVIAL Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale Terrigenous

1998 Pamela J. W. Gore

LACUSTRINE Siltstone, shale, limestone, or evaporites (gypsum) DESERT (DUNES) Quartz arenite (sandstone) or gypsum Terrigenous or evaporite Yellow, red, tan, white Sand PALUDAL Peat, coal, black shale, siltstone Terrigenous

Composition

Terrigenous, carbonate, or evaporite Black, brown, gray, green

Color

Brown or red

Brown or red

Black, gray, or brown Clay to silt

Grain Size

Clay to gravel

Clay to gravel (Fining upward) Rounded to angular Variable Asymmetrical ripples, crossbedding, graded bedding, tool marks Tracks, trails,burrows

Clay to silt or sand (Coarsening upward) ---

Grain Shape

Angular

Rounded

---

Sorting Inorganic Sedimentary Structures

Poor Cross-bedding and graded bedding

Variable Symmetrical ripples, lamination, cross-bedding, graded bedding, mudcracks, raindrop prints

Good Cross-bedding

Variable Laminated to massive

Organic or Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Fossils

---

Tracks, trails, burrows, rare stromatolites

Tracks, trails

Root marks, burrows

---

Rare freshwater shells, bones, plant fragments

Freshwater shells, fish, bones, plant fragments

---

Plant fossils, rare freshwater shells, bones, fish

MARINE SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Copyright REEF

1998 Pamela J. W. Gore

CONTINENTAL SLOPE AND RISE Litharenite, siltstone, and shale (or limestone) ABYSSAL PLAIN

CONTINENTAL SHELF Sandstone, shale, siltstone, fossiliferous limestone, oolitic limestone Terrigenous or carbonate Gray to brown Clay to sand

Rock Type

Fossiliferous limestone

Shale, chert, micrite, chalk, diatomite

Composition

Carbonate

Terrigenous or carbonate

Terrigenous or carbonate Black, white red Clay

Color Grain Size

Gray to white Variable, frameworks, few to no grains -------

Gray, green, brown Clay to sand

Grain Shape Sorting Inorganic Sedimentary Structures Organic or Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Fossils

--Poor to good Lamination, crossbedding

--Poor Graded bedding, cross-bedding, lamination, flute marks, tool marks (turbidites) Trails, burrows

--Good Lamination

---

Trails, burrows

Trails, burrows

Corals, marine shells

Marine shells

Marine shells, rare plant fragments

Marine shells (mostly microscopic)

TRANSITIONAL SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS

Copyright DELTA Rock Type Sandstone, siltstone, shale, coal

1998 Pamela J. W. Gore

LAGOON Siltstone, shale, limestone, oolitic limestone or gypsum TIDAL FLAT Siltstone, shale, calcilutite, dolostone or gypsum Terrigenous, carbonate, or evaporite Gray, brown, tan

BARRIER BEACH Quartz arenite, coquina

Composition

Terrigenous

Terrigenous or carbonate White to tan

Terrigenous, carbonate, or evaporite Dark gray to black

Color

Brown, black, gray, green, red Clay to sand (Coarsening upward --Poor Cross-bedding, graded bedding

Grain Size

Sand

Clay to silt

Clay to silt

Grain Shape Sorting Inorganic Sedimentary Structures Organic or Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Fossils

Rounded to angular Good Cross-bedding, symmetrical ripples

--Poor Lamination, ripples, crossbedding

--Variable Lamination, mudcracks, ripples, cross-bedding Stromatolites, trails, tracks, burrows

Trails, burrows

Tracks, trails, burrows

Trails, burrows

Plant fragments, shells

Marine shells

Marine shells

Marine shells