January 1985
NASA PHOTO
20 m i N A S AP H O T O
78
O utline
P etroleumsystem s G eologic principles and geologic tim e R ock and m inerals, rock cycle, reservoir properties H ydrocarbon origin, m igration and accum ulation S edim entary environm ents; stratigraphic traps P late tectonics, structural geology S tructural traps G eophysical m ethods Im portance to S chlum berger
A ctiv e S o u rce R o ck
P etro leu mR eservo ir (R )
T o pO il W in d o w T o pG as W in d o w
O verb u rd en R o ck S eal o rC ap [R o ck
Petroleum System
A Petroleum System requires timely convergence of certain geologic factors and geologic events.
These Include: Seal or cap rock Reservoir rock Migration Mature source rock
Petroleum Geology
Law of cross-cutting relationships. In the figure above, the igneous dike (F) is younger than layers A-E but older than layer G, because a geologic feature is younger than any other geologic feature that it cuts. This is an important law for determining the relative ages of geologic features. According to the Law of Superposition, layer I is older than layer J, and the rocks beneath the unconformity are older from right to left. From the Principle of Original Horizonality, we infer that layers A through F have been deformed. Sedimentary rock are deposited in successive layers that record the history of their time, much like the pages in history book. However, the rock record is never complete. Missing layers (gaps in time) result in unconformities. An unconformity is a surface of non-deposition or erosion that separates younger rocks from older rocks. The slide shows an angular unconformity. A nonconformity is an unconformity in which younger sedimentary rocks overlie older metamorphic or intrusive igneous rocks
The following are basic principles or laws are used to evaluate the relative ages and the relations among rock layers. Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. By studying modern geologic processes, we can interpret past geologic events and rock-forming processes. Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. If sedimentary layers are tilted or folded, they have been subjected to deforming stresses. Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.
C E D
Sill s u o Igne
Igneous D ike
F B A
G eologic T im eC hart
E o n
0
P h an ero zo ic
E ra P erio d
0 50
Q u atern ary
E p o ch
0 Pleistocene 10
R ecen t
T ertiary
P lio cen e
Cenozoic Era
Mesozoic
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
C retaceo u s
io cen e 20 M
30 O lig o cen e 40 50 aleo cen e 60 P
Cryptozoic (Precambrian)
E o cen e
4.6
Paleozoic
D evo n ian
S ilu rian
O rd ov ician
C am b rian
Tertiary period
Quaternary period
245 m.y
290 m.y
vonian period
rian period
1 b.y
23 m.y
2 b.y
5 m.y
3 b.y
0.01 million years ago
4 b.y
U niform itarianism- T he present is the key to the past. O riginal H orizonality - S edim entary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. S uperposition - Y ounger sedim entary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. C ross-C utting R elations - A ny geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.
Metamorphic Rock
Igneous Rock
n a
Sedimentary Rock
Sediment
C ontinental deposits are usually dunes. A shallow m arine environm ent has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain sizes. It can also have carbonate and evaporite form ation. A deep m arine environm ent produces fine sedim ents.
19
C lastic R eservoirs
P erm eability
D eterm ined m ainly by grain size and packing, connectivity and shale content.
F ractures m ay be present.
21
Example
Sandstone
Shale
Some sedimentary rock types Breccia - Coarse-grained, angular fragments - little transport; Conglomerate - Coarse-grained, mixture of rounded pebbles and sand ranging widely in size; well rounded pebbles imply some transport in a high energy system Sandstone - commonly quartz, feldspar, or rock fragments; deposited in many environments Shale - very fine grained; composed primarily of clay; deposited in low-energy environments such as lakes, bays, lagoons, of deep marine settings
C lastic R ocks
C lastic rocks are sands, silts and shales. T he difference is in the size of the grains.
Size ??
24
S an d sto n e (% )
5 65 10-15 15 <1 <1
(m odified fromB latt, 1982)
23
S edim entation
25
A llu vial L ake D esert G lacial D elta B each S h allo wsh elf D eep sea
O rganic M aterial =
27
S edim ents are transported to the basins by rivers. A com m on depositional environm ent is the delta w here the river em pties into the sea. Ag o o d exam p le o f th is is th eM ississip p i (M io cen e an dO ligo cen e san d s)
28
R ivers
S om e types of deposition occur in rivers and sand bars. T he river form s a channel w here sands are deposited in layers. R ivers carry sedim ent dow n fromthe m ountains w hich is then deposited in the river bed and on the flood plains at either side. C hanges in the environm ent can cause these sands to be overlain w ith a shale, trapping the reservoir rock.
29
Fram ew ork
Q tz Q u artz
Pores
Q tz Q tz Q tz Q u artz A nkerite
C em ent
31
P orosity in S andstone
P o re T h ro at
32
Illite
(P h o to g rap h by R .L .K u g ler)
33
34
S ig n ificant P erm eab ility R ed u ction H ig h Irred ucib le W ater S atu ratio n
M ig ratio n of F in es P ro b lem
(P h o to g rap h by R .L .K u g ler)
35
A u th ig en ic C h lo rite
1000 100 10
Permeability (md)
10
0.01
P o ro sity (% )
(m o d ified fro mK ug ler an dM cH u g h , 1990)
36
C arbonate R eservoirs
C arbonates (lim estone and dolom ite) norm ally have a very irregular structure. P orosity:
D eterm ined by the type of shells, etc. and by depositional and post-depositional events (fracturing, leaching, etc.).
P erm eability:
37
C arbonate types
C halk is a special formof lim estone (C aC O 3) and is form ed fromthe skeletons of sm all creatures (cocoliths). D olom ite (C aM g(C O 3)2) is form ed by the replacem ent of som e of the calciumby a lesser volum e of m agnesiumin lim estone. M agnesiumis sm aller than calcium , hence the m atrix becom es sm aller and m ore porosity is created.
???
E vaporites such as S alt (N aC l) and A nhydrite (C aS O 4) can also formin these environm ents.
??
38
C arbonates are form ed in shallow seas containing features such as: R eefs. Lagoons. S hore-bars.
39
D iagenesis
T he environm ent can also involve subsequent alterations of the rock such as:
C hem ical changes. D iagenesis is the chem ical alteration of a rock after burial. A nexam ple is the replacem ent of som e of the calciumatom s in lim estone by m agnesiumto form dolom ite.
40
S ource R ocks
H ydrocarbon originates fromm inute organism s in seas and lakes. W hen they die, they sink to the bottomw here they form organic-rich "m uds" in fine sedim ents. T hese "m uds" are in a reducing environm ent or "kitchen", w hich strips oxygen fromthe sedim ents leaving hydrogen and carbon. T he sedim ents are com pacted to formorganic-rich rocks w ith very low perm eability. T he hydrocarbon can m igrate very slow ly to nearby porous rocks, displacing the original form ation w ater.
42
H ydrocarbon M igration
H ydrocarbon m igration takes place in tw o stages: P rim ary m igration - fromthe source rock to a porous rock. T his is a com plex process and not fully understood. It is probably lim ited to a few hundred m etres. S econdary m igration - along the porous rock to the trap. T his occurs by buoyancy, capillary pressure and hydrodynam ics through a continuous w ater-filled pore system . It can take place over large distances.
43
Trap
Closure
Fracture Basement
Fold Trap
Salt Dome
Salt Diapir
Oil
V itrin ite
V itrin ite
An o n flu o rescen t typ eo fo rg an ic m aterial in p etro leu mso u rce ro cks d eriv ed p rim arily fro mw o o d ym aterial. T h e reflectiv ity o fv itrin ite is o n eo f th e b est in d icato rs o f co al ran k an d th erm al m atu rity o fp etro leu mso u rce ro ck.
44
Interpretation of T otal O rganic C arbon (TO C ) (based on early oil w indow m aturity)
H yd ro carb o n G en eratio n P o ten tial P oor F air G ood V ery G ood E xcellent T O C in S h ale (w t. % ) 0.0 - 0 . 5 0.5 - 1 . 0 1.0 - 2 . 0 2.0 - 5 . 0 >5.0 T O C in C arb o n ates (w t. % ) 0.0 - 0 . 2 0.2 - 0 . 5 0.5 - 1 . 0 1.0 - 2 . 0 >2.0
45
Continental crust
Magma rising
Asthenosphere
Magma forming
Distribution of
earthquakes
F oreland B asin (C om pressive Stress) T hrust fault P ull-apart B asin (L ateral Stress) W rench fault
48
F olded S tructures
C onvex upw ard
?? A ge
A nticline
Syncline
50
Definitions
A fold is a bend in the strata. An anticline is a fold that is convex upward. The oldest beds occur in the center of an anticline. A syncline is a fold that is concave upward. The youngest beds occur in the center of a syncline. A monocline (not shown) is composed of strata that dip in one direction and are not known to form a flank of an anticline.
b Lim
b Lim
51
Faulting
Str ike
D ip A n g le
F ault P lane
54
56
W ell
Field Wide
100's m
Interwell
R eservoir S andstone
100's m
10's m
Well -Bore
10-100's m
10-100's m m
1-10's m
U naided E ye
H ydrocarbon T raps
58
T raps G eneral
G haw ar O ilfield - Saudi A rabia- L s - 145 m i x 13 m iw ide x260 ft produces 11,000 b/d total 82B bbls G asharan O ilfield - Iran - L s - 6000ft. N et pay total 8.5 B bbls
59
Seal
F old T rap
Salt D om e
Salt D iapir
O il
F ault T raps
F aults occur w hen the rock shears due to stresses. R eservoirs often formin these fault zones. A porous and perm eable layer m ay trap fluids due to its location alongside an im perm eable fault or its juxtaposition alongside an im perm eable bed. F aults are found in conjunction w ith other structures such as N orm al or R everse Fault??? anticlines, dom es and salt dom es.
61
S tratigraphic T raps
M ichigan - B elle R iver M ills D evonian reefs (B arriers and A tolls) A lberta C A . (Leduc &R edw ater) M idland B asin & D elaw are B asin of W est T X- B arrier R eefs
64
65
S eism ic S urveys
T he seism ic tools com m only used in the oil and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seism ic data S eism ic data are used to:
D efine and m ap structural folds and faults Identify stratigraphic variations and m ap sedim entary facies Infer the presence of hydrocarbons
67
Source
70
71
-1 30 00
-1 28 00
-1 2600
S tru ctu ral interp retatio n b ased o n 3-D seism ic an dw ell log d ata
-1 24 00
1 2 6 0 0
-12400
-1 22 00
-124 00
00 26 -1
-11600
-1 1400
1
0 8 2 -1 0
00 24
S ea-level datum
11,400 -11,600 -11,600 -12,000 -12,000 -12,400 -12,400 -12,800 -12,800 -13,200 0 0
-11600
1 6 -1 0 0
-11800
-12400
-1 26
00
-1
-120
0 0 8 2
00
-12 400
3000 ft 1000 m
0 0 4 2 -1
-12
0 0 6
-1 30 00
00 VLE 4 Fault
72
0 0 8 2 1 -
C hannels
73
F ault
M odified fromB row n, 1996
74
Exercise 1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Oil forms at lower temperatures than gas. T_____ F ______ The law of (original horizontality, uniformitarianism, superpos ition) states that, in a normal sedimentary sequence, younger layers occur on top of older layer s. The largest division of geologic time is the (era, eon, period, epoch). Hydrocarbons are most abundant in (metamorphic, igneous, sedimen tary) rocks. The most abundant sedimentary rock type is shale. T____ F ____ __ Name 3 clay minerals common in sandstone reservoirs A. _____________________ B.____________________
7.
C. _________ ___________
Clastic rocks are formed from the materials of older rocks by the actions of erosion, transportation and __________________. Clastic rocks are sedimentary. T___ F____
8.
9.
10.
E xercise 2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 1. D iagenesis is the chem ical alteration of a rock after burial. T ___ F ___ (M agnesium , Iron, or S ulfate) m ust be in the form ation w ater in order to convert lim estone to dolom ite. Lim estone is (C aC O 3 or C a(C O 3)2). D olom ite is M gC aC O 3 or M gC a(C O 3)2. R eef deposits are classified as (clastic, carbonate) sedim entaryrocks. T he source rock m ust contain (organic m aterial, coal, m ethane). F ault and anticline traps occur only in gas w ells. T ___ F ___ T he oil w ater contact can be observed using seism ic T ___ F ___ (H istorical, structural, tectonic) geology addresses the occurrence and origin of sm aller scale deform ational features, such as folds and faults, that m ay be involved in hydrocarbon m igration or w hich m ay formstructural hydrocarbon traps. G ood quality sandstone reservoirs norm ally contain ~ (1-10 or 25-30%silt and clay).
10.
81
E xercise 3
N
W ell 4 3 4 3 4
2 1
b
W ell
d
82
E xercise 4
1.
H ydrocarbons reservoirs are norm ally in (igneous, m etam orphic, sedim entary) rocks. F luorescence of drill cuttings or core indicates (oil, gas, w ater) is present. R eservoir traps are (very im perm eable, highly perm eable). W hat are 2 uses of seism ic data in petroleumexploration and developm ent?
1. 2.
2.
3. 3.
________________________________________________ _________________________________________________
4.
In inclined reservoir rocks, w hat is the significance of a flat spot in seism ic sections? W hat is a 4-D seism ic evaluation?
5.
83
U niform itarianism- T he present is the key to the past. O riginal H orizonality - S edim entary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. S uperposition - Y ounger sedim entary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. C ross-C utting R elations - A ny geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.
The following are basic principles or laws are used to evaluate the relative ages and the relations among rock layers. Uniformitarianism - The present is the key to the past. By studying modern geologic processes, we can interpret past geologic events and rock-forming processes. Original Horizonality - Sedimentary layers are deposited in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position. If sedimentary layers are tilted or folded, they have been subjected to deforming stresses. Superposition - Younger sedimentary beds occur on top of older beds, unless they have been overturned or faulted. Cross-Cutting Relations - Any geologic feature that cuts another geologic feature is younger than the feature that it cuts.
KLASIFIKASI BATUAN
Batuan merupakan agregat padat yang terdiri dari mineral atau mineraloid, kebanyakan batuan terdiri atas beberapa jenis mineral (mineral, gelas, ubahan mineral organik, dan kombinasi dari komponen-komponen tersebut) (Ernest G. Ehlers & Harvey Blatt, 1980). Batuan didefinisikan juga sebagai kumpulan mineral alamiah yang terkristalkan oleh proses pembentukan batuan (Huckenholz, 1982).
BATUAN BEKU
Batuan beku adalah batuan yang terbentuk akibat membekunya magma pada waktu perjalannya menuju ke permukaan bumi. Hasil dari pembekuan magma tersebut membentuk berbagai jenis mineral yang mengikuti aturan tingkat diferensiasi dari magma. Magma adalah cairan silikat yang panas dan pijar yang terdiri atas unsur-unsur O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K dan sebagainya.
Kimiawi Unsur utama (major element): seperti unsur oksoda SiO2, Al2O3, dll. Unsur jejak (trace element): seperti Sr, Rb, Ba, dll. Unsur tanah jarang (rare earth element): seperti La, Ce, Pr, dll.
a. Berdasarkan tekstur: IUGS (International Union of Geological Sciences) membagi batuan beku berdasarkan pada besar butir:
Batuan fanerik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan plutonik, dimana butirannya kasar, sehingga secara individu dapat dibedakan, berbutir kasar-sedang (> 1 mm). Kristal-krital yang lebih besar (fenokris) tertanam dalam masa dasar yang lebih halus (Gambar 2). Klasifikasi batuan fanerik dilakukan oleh IUGS, 1973 (Gambar 3). Batuan afanitik diklasifikasikan sebagai batuan vulkanik, dimana ukuran mineralnya terlalu kecil untuk dibedakan, umumnya berbutir haus (< 1mm). Klasifikasi batuan ini dapat dilihat pada Gambar 4.
Berdasarkan mineralogi (Gambar 5) Dasar klasifikasi: Komposisi (%) mineral utama Kimiawi:
silika (% SiO2) : ultrabasa (SiO2 < 45%)
basa (SiO2 45 52%) intermediate (SiO2 52 66%) asam (SiO2 > 66%)
alumina saturation
peralumina : jenuh terhadap alumina (Al2O3 > Na2O + K2O +CaO) peralkaline : oksida alkalin > oksida alumina subalumina : oksida alumina =/> oksida alkalin (Na2O + K2O) metalumina : oksida alumina =/> Na2O + K2O +CaO
Batuan Piroklastik adalah batuan hasil letusan gunungapi. Terdiri atas material-material piroklastik, yaitu pecahan gelas/abu/debu gunungapi, kristal, lithik. Klasifikasi batuan piroklastik: Pada dasarnya pembagian batuan piroklastik didasarkan pada ukuran butir. Penamaan: tuf, tuf lapili, breksi piroklastik atau breksi vulkanik (Gambar 6). Untuk yang berbutir halus (<4 mm): tuff gelas, tuf kristal, tuf lithik (Tabel 1).
PIROKLAS
ENDAPAN PIROKLASTIK Lapisan bom/blok atau tefra bom/blok Lapisan lapili atau tefra lapili Debu kasar Debu halus
NAMA BATUAN
Bomb Block Lapillus / Lapili Butiran debu kasar Butiran debu halus
Aglomerat, breksi piroklastik Lapillitone / tuf lapili Tuf debu kasar Tuf debu halus
Selain batuan piroklastik ini juga dikenal batuan epiklastik, yaitu batuan yang terbentuk dari campuran atau rombakan material-material batuan piroklastik (vulkanik) (Gambar 7). Contoh: batupasir vulkanik, tuf pasiran, dll.
BATUAN SEDIMEN
Batuan sedimen adalah batuan yang berasal dari rombakan batuan yang telah ada yang telah mengalami siklus sedimentasi (pelapukan-transportasisedimentasi-diagenesa) (Gambar 9).
Penggolongan batuan sedimen Batuan sedimen dapat diklasifikasikan berdasarkan beberapa cara:
Berdasarkan proses pembentukannya (Gambar 10): Sedimentasi mekanis, contoh batulanau, batulempung, batupasir, dll. Sedimentasi organis, contoh batubara, batugamping terumbu, batugamping bioklastik, dll Sedimentasi kimiawi, contoh batugamping kristalin, dolomit, batugamping oolith, gips, anhidrit, dll.
?B e r d a s a r k a n a s a l u s u l n y a : K l a s t i k t e r i g e n o u s E n d a p a n b i o k i m i a P e n g e n d a p a n V o l k a n i k l a s t i k b i o g e n i k o r g a n i k k i m i a R u d i t ,a r e n i t ,l u t i t B a t u g a m p i n g , I r o n s t o n e s , T u f a ,a g l o m e r a t d o l o m i t , r i j a n g ,e v a p o r i t f o s f a t ,b a t u b a r a
Terdiri atas material detritus (hasil rombakan / pecahan), memperlihatkan tekstur klastik. Ukuran butir halus kasar (Gambar 11), dibagi berdasarkan skala yang dinyatakan oleh Wentworth (Gambar 12).
Butiran (grain) : klastik yang tertransport yang disebut sebagai fragmen. Matriks (masa dasar) : lebih halus dari fragmen/butiran, mengisi rongga antar fragmen, diendapkan bersama-sama dengan fragmen. Semen : berukuran halus, mengikat butiran/fragmen dan matriks, diendapkan ditempat sedimentasi setelah fragmen dan matriks. Pemilahan (sorting) : derajat kesamaan atau keseragaman butir. Dinyatakan dalam skala baik, sedang, atau buruk. Porositas : perbandingan volume pori terhadap volume batuan secara keseluruhan. Biasanya dinyatakan dalam % atau dalam kualitas (baik, sedang atau buruk). Batuan dengan butir yang seragam (terpilah baik) akan mempunyai porositas yang relatif lebih besar dari batuan dengan pemilahan buruk. Clay memiliki porositas yang paing besar, lalu batupasir dan kemudian breksi atau konglomerat. Kebundaran : menyatakan kebundaran atau ktajaman butiran yang mencerminkan tingkat abrasi selama transportasi. Merupakan sifat permukaan dari butiran yang disebabkan oleh pengaruh transportasi terhadap butiran. Kemas (fabric) : merupakan sifat hubungan antar butir sebagai fungsi orientasi atau packing. Dinyatakan dalam skala terbuka (kontak antar butiran tidak bersentuhan) dan tertutup (kontak antar butiran saling bersentuhan). Permeabilitas : kemampuan batuan meloloskan fluida, yang mencerminkan poriyang saling berhubungan. Batupasir merupakan batuan dengan permeabilitas yang baik, sedangkan clay walaupun memiliki porositas baik tapi permeabilitasnya yang buruk. Karena mineral dalam clay termasuk kedalam minera pirosilika yang bersifat konduktif, sehingga clay ini mengikat kation yang akan mengikat OH. Oleh karena itu clay memiliki sifat swelling (dapat mengembang bila terkena air), yang menyebabkan resistivity dari clay ini sangat rendah (Gambar 13). Struktur sedimen : penyimpangan dari bidang perlapisan. Struktur sedimen ini mencerminkan mekanisme yang mempengaruhi pengendapan batuan sedimen. Contoh: strutur sedimen pada mekanisme arus turbidit yang dinyatakan oleh Bouma dalam Sikuen Bouma.
Batuan Karbonat
Batuan karbonat adalah batuan sedimen yang mempunyai komposisi garam-garam karbonat yang dominan (> 50%). Proses pembentukannya dapat secara insitu, berasal dari larutan yang mengalami proses kimiawi maupun biokimiawi. Komposisi kimia dan mineralogi batuan karbonat:
Aragonit (CaCO3 orthorombik) Kalsit (CaCO3 hexagonal) Dolomit (CaMg(CO3)2) Magnesit (Mg CO3)
menurut Choquette anfd Pray (1970) merupakan klasifikasi deskriptif dan genetik. Unsur-0unsurnya terdiri atas:
Basic porosity types:
fabric selective : interpartikel, intrapartikel, interkristalin, moldic, fenestral, shelter, growth framework. Non fabric selective : fracture, channel, vuggy, cavern Fabric selective or not : breccia, boring, burrow, shrinkage.
Batuan Evaporit
Merupakan batuan garam yang terbentuj jarena evaporasi air laut.. Mineral penyusunnya bersifat monomineralik, antara lain: garam (CaSO4 2H2O), anhidrit (CaSO4), dan halit (NaCl)
BATUAN METAMORF
Batuan metamorf adalah batuan yang terbentuk akibat proses perubahan tekanan (P) dan temperatur (T) atau keduanya, dimana batuan memasuki kesetimbangan baru tanpa adanya perubahan komposisi kimia (isokimia) dan tanpa melalui fasa cair (dalam keadaan padat) dengan temperatur berkisar 200-800 C.
Perubahan yang terjadi dalam proses metamorfosa: perubahan tekstur dan struktur (yang merefleksikan sejarah pembentukkannya); dan asosiasi mineral. Struktur batuan metamorf: Struktur foliasi (schistosity) struktur paralel yang ditimbulkan oleh mineral pipih/mineral prismatik, seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa regional dan metamorfosa kataklastik. Struktur non foliasi struktur yang dibentuk oleh mineral-mineral yang equidimensional, seringkali terjadi pada metamorfosa termal.
Granulose terdiri atas mineral granular Hornfelsik identik dengan granoblastik, tapi mineral equidimensional. Lepidoblastik terdiri atas mineral pipih/tabular Nematoblastik terdiri atas mineral prismatik Granoblastik terdiri atas mineral granular Homeoblastik terdiri atas satu tekstur saja Heteroblastik terdiri atas beberapa tekstur Relic (sisa) tekstur sisa yang terbentuk sebelum metamorfosa Kristaloblastik setiap tekstur yang terbentuk pada saat metamorfosa Awalan meta bila masih dikenali sifat batuan asalnya, seperti metasedimen, metavolkanik, dll.
Composition
Color
Brown or red
Brown or red
Grain Size
Clay to gravel
Clay to gravel (Fining upward) Rounded to angular Variable Asymmetrical ripples, crossbedding, graded bedding, tool marks Tracks, trails,burrows
Grain Shape
Angular
Rounded
---
Variable Symmetrical ripples, lamination, cross-bedding, graded bedding, mudcracks, raindrop prints
Good Cross-bedding
---
Tracks, trails
---
---
CONTINENTAL SHELF Sandstone, shale, siltstone, fossiliferous limestone, oolitic limestone Terrigenous or carbonate Gray to brown Clay to sand
Rock Type
Fossiliferous limestone
Composition
Carbonate
Terrigenous or carbonate
Grain Shape Sorting Inorganic Sedimentary Structures Organic or Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Fossils
--Poor Graded bedding, cross-bedding, lamination, flute marks, tool marks (turbidites) Trails, burrows
--Good Lamination
---
Trails, burrows
Trails, burrows
Marine shells
Composition
Terrigenous
Color
Brown, black, gray, green, red Clay to sand (Coarsening upward --Poor Cross-bedding, graded bedding
Grain Size
Sand
Clay to silt
Clay to silt
Grain Shape Sorting Inorganic Sedimentary Structures Organic or Biogenic Sedimentary Structures Fossils
Trails, burrows
Trails, burrows
Marine shells
Marine shells
Marine shells