Chapter 11 KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES

The motion of a particle along a P O straight line is termed rectilinear motion. To define the position P x x of the particle on that line, we choose a fixed origin O and a positive direction. The distance x from O to P, with the appropriate sign, completely defines the position of the particle on the line and is called the position coordinate of the particle.

The velocity v of the particle is equal to the time derivative of the position coordinate x,

dx v= dt
and the acceleration a is obtained by differentiating v with respect to t,

dv a= dt
we can also express a as

or

d 2x a= 2 dt

dv a=v dx

O x +

P x

dx v= dt
or

dv a= dt d 2x dv a = dt 2 or a = v dx

The velocity v and acceleration a are represented by algebraic numbers which can be positive or negative. A positive value for v indicates that the particle moves in the positive direction, and a negative value that it moves in the negative direction. A positive value for a, however, may mean that the particle is truly accelerated (i.e., moves faster) in the positive direction, or that it is decelerated (i.e., moves more slowly) in the negative direction. A negative value for a is subject to a similar interpretation.

Two types of motion are frequently encountered: uniform rectilinear motion, in which the velocity v of the particle is constant and

x = xo + vt
and uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, in which the acceleration a of the particle is constant and

v = vo + at x = xo + vot +

1 2

at2

2 v2 = vo + 2 a (x - x o )

O xA

A xB/A xB

B x

When particles A and B move along the same straight line, the relative motion of B with respect to A can be considered. Denoting by xB/A the relative position coordinate of B with respect to A , we have

xB = xA + xB/A
Differentiating twice with respect to t, we obtain

vB = vA + vB/A

aB = aA + aB/A

where vB/A and aB/A represent, respectively, the relative velocity and the relative acceleration of B with respect to A.

xA

xC xB C

A B

When several blocks are are connected by inextensible cords, it is possible to write a linear relation between their position coordinates. Similar relations can then be written between their velocities and their accelerations and can be used to analyze their motion.

Sometimes it is convenient to use a graphical solution for problems involving rectilinear motion of a particle. The graphical solution most commonly involves x - t, v - t , and a - t curves. a At any given time t, v = slope of x - t curve a = slope of v - t curve
t1
t2

v
v2 v1 t1 t2

v2 - v1 = a dt
t1

t2

while over any given time interval t1 to t2, v2 - v1 = area under a - t curve x2 - x1 = area under v - t curve

t x2 - x1 = v dt
t1 t2

x
x2 x1
t1 t2

v P r Po s x

The curvilinear motion of a particle involves particle motion along a curved path. The position P of the particle at a given time is defined by the position vector r joining the origin O of the coordinate system with the point P.

The velocity v of the particle is defined by the relation

dr v= dt
The velocity vector is tangent to the path of the particle, and has a magnitude v equal to the time derivative of the length s of the arc described by the particle:

ds v= dt

v P r Po s x a

dr v= dt

ds v= dt

O y

In general, the acceleration a of the particle is not tangent to the path of the particle. It is defined by the relation
P s x

r Po O

dv a= dt

y
vz j k

vy

vx xi zk

r yj
i

z y
ay

Denoting by x, y, and z the rectangular coordinates of a particle P, the rectangular components of velocity and acceleration of P are equal, respectively, to the first and second derivatives with respect to t of the corresponding coordinates:

P
az j k

ax

. vx = x .. ax = x

. vy = y .. ay = y

. vz = z .. az = z

r
i

The use of rectangular components is particularly effective in the study of the motion of projectiles.

y y rB rA A z z B rB/A x

For two particles A and B moving in space, we consider the relative motion of B with respect to A , or more precisely, with respect to a moving frame attached to A and in translation with A. Denoting by rB/A the relative position vector of B with respect to A , we have

rB = rA + rB/A
Denoting by vB/A and aB/A , respectively, the relative velocity and the relative acceleration of B with respect to A, we also have

vB = vA + vB/A
and

aB = aA + aB/A

It is sometimes convenient to C resolve the velocity and acceleration v2 of a particle P into components other an = e r n than the rectangular x, y, and z components. For a particle P moving dv along a path confined to a plane, we at = dt et attach to P the unit vectors et P tangent to the path and en normal to x O the path and directed toward the center of curvature of the path. The velocity and acceleration are expressed in terms of tangential and normal components. The velocity of the particle is

v = vet
The acceleration is

v2 dv a= et + en r dt

y
C v2 an = e r n

v = v et v2 dv a= et + en r dt

P O

dv at = dt et
x

In these equations, v is the speed of the particle and r is the radius of curvature of its path. The velocity vector v is directed along the tangent to the path. The acceleration vector a consists of a component at directed along the tangent to the path and a component an directed toward the center of curvature of the path,

When the position of a particle moving er in a plane is defined by its polar coordinates r and q, it is convenient to r = r er P use radial and transverse components directed, respectively, along the position vector r of the particle and in q the direction obtained by rotating r x O through 90o counterclockwise. Unit vectors er and eq are attached to P and are directed in the radial and transverse directions. The velocity and acceleration of the particle in terms of radial and transverse components is

eq

. . v = rer + rqeq .. .. . 2 .. a = (r - rq )er + (rq + 2rq)eq

eq

er P

r = r er q O

. . v = rer + rqeq .. .. . 2 .. a = (r - rq )er + (rq + 2rq)eq

x In these equations the dots represent differentiation with respect to time. The scalar components of of the velocity and acceleration in the radial and transverse directions are therefore .

. vr = r .. . 2 a r = r - rq

v q = rq .. .. a q = rq + 2rq

It is important to note that ar is not equal to the time derivative of vr, and that aq is not equal to the time derivative of vq.

Chapter 12 KINETICS OF PARTICLES: NEWTONS SECOND LAW

Denoting by m the mass of a particle, by S F the sum, or resultant, of the forces acting on the particle, and by a the acceleration of the particle relative to a newtonian frame of reference, we write

S F = ma
Introducing the linear momentum of a particle, L = mv, Newtons second law can also be written as

. SF=L
which expresses that the resultant of the forces acting on a particle is equal to the rate of change of the linear momentum of the particle.

y P
az

ay ax

To solve a problem involving the motion of a particle, S F = ma should be replaced by equations containing scalar quantities. Using rectangular components of F and a, we have x

z
y

S Fx = max

S Fy = may

S Fz = maz

Using tangential and normal components,

an
at P

O
aq r O q P

dv S Ft = mat = m dt v2 S Fn = man = m

Using radial and transverse components, ar x

.. . 2 S Fr = mar= m(r - rq ) .. .. S Fq = maq = m(rq + 2rq)

HO

y mv f

O
z

P x

The angular momentum HO of a particle about point O is defined as the moment about O of the linear momentum mv of that particle.

HO = r x mv

We note that HO is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing r and mv and of magnitude

HO = rmv sin f
Resolving the vectors r and mv into rectangular components, we express the angular momentum HO in determinant form as

i HO = x mvx

j k y z mvy mvz

y HO r f P

mv

In the case of a particle moving in the xy plane, we have z = vz = 0. The angular momentum is perpendicular to the xy plane and is completely defined by its magnitude z

i HO = x mvx

j k y z mvy mvz

Computing the rate of change HO of the angular momentum HO , and applying Newtons second law, we write

HO = Hz = m(xvy - yvx) .

. S MO = HO

which states that the sum of the moments about O of the forces acting on a particle is equal to the rate of change of the angular momentum of the particle about O.

P r O r0 P0 f0

mv f

mv0

When the only force acting on a particle P is a force F directed toward or away from a fixed point O, the particle is said to be moving under a central force. Since S MO = 0 at any . given instant, it follows that HO = 0 for all values of t, and

HO = constant
We conclude that the angular momentum of a particle moving under a central force is constant, both in magnitude and direction, and that the particle moves in a plane perpendicular to HO .

P r O r0 P0 f0

mv f

Recalling that HO = rmv sin f, we have, for points PO and P

mv0

rmv sin f = romvo sin fo

for the motion of any particle under a central force.

Using polar coordinates and recalling that vq = rq and HO = we have

mr2q,

. r2q = h

where h is a constant representing the angular momentum per unit mass Ho/m, of the particle.

P r O r0 P0 f0

mv f

mv0

. r2q = h

r dq dq O q

dA F

The infinitesimal area dA swept by the radius vector OP as it rotates through.dq is equal to r2dq/2 and, thus, r2q represents twice the areal velocity dA/dt of the particle. The areal velocity of a particle moving under a central force is constant.

An important application of the motion under a central force is provided by the r m orbital motion of bodies under gravitational F attraction. According to Newtons law of universal gravitation, two particles at a -F distance r from each other and of masses M M and m, respectively, attract each other with equal and opposite forces F and -F directed along the line joining the particles. The magnitude F of the two forces is

Mm F=G 2 r
where G is the constant of gravitation. In the case of a body of mass m subjected to the gravitational attraction of the earth, the product GM, where M is the mass of the earth, is expressed as

GM = gR2
where g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2 and R is the radius of the earth.

r q
O
A

A particle moving under a central force describes a trajectory defined by the differential equation

d 2u + u = F mh 2u 2 dq 2
where F > 0 corresponds to an attractive force and u = 1/r. In the case of a particle moving under a force of gravitational attraction, we substitute F = GMm/r2 into this equation. Measuring q from the axis OA joining the focus O to the point A of the trajectory closest to O, we find

1 GM = u = 2 + C cos q r h

r q
O
A

1 GM = u = 2 + C cos q r h

This is the equation of a conic of eccentricity e = Ch2/GM. The conic is an ellipse if e < 1, a parabola if e =1, and a hyperbola if e > 1. The constants C and h can be determined from the initial conditions; if the particle is projected from point A with an initial velocity v0 perpendicular to OA, we have h = r0v0.

The values of the initial velocity corresponding, respectively, to a parabolic and circular trajectory are

2GM vesc = r0

GM vcirc = r0

r q
O
A

2GM vesc= r0

GM vcirc= r0

vesc is the escape velocity, which is the smallest value of v0 for which the particle will not return to its starting point.

The periodic time t of a planet or satellite is defined as the time required by that body to describe its orbit,

2pab t= h
where h = r0v0 and where a and b represent the semimajor and semiminor axes of the orbit. These semiaxes are respectively equal to the arithmetic and geometric means of the maximum and minimum values of the radius vector r.

Chapter 13 KINETICS OF PARTICLES: ENERGY AND MOMENTUM METHODS

Consider a force F acting on a particle A. The work of F corresponding to the small displacement dr is defined as

s2
A1

ds A dr

A2

a F

s1

dU = F dr
Recalling the definition of scalar product of two vectors,

dU = F ds cos a
where a is the angle between F and dr.

s2
A1

ds A dr

A2

dU = F dr = F ds cos a

s1

The work of F during a finite F displacement from A1 to A2 , denoted by U1 2 , is obtained by integrating along the path described by the particle. A2

U1

F dr

A1

For a force defined by its rectangular components, we write

U1

A2

(Fxdx + Fydy + Fzdz)

A1

A2 W dy A A1 y2 y The work of the weight W of a body as its center of gravity moves from an elevation y1 to y2 is obtained by setting Fx = Fz = 0 and Fy = - W . y2

y1

U1

2=

Wdy = Wy1 - Wy2

y1

The work is negative when the elevation increases, and positive when the elevation decreases.

A2 A dr r2 r dq F m A

The work of the gravitational force F exerted by a particle of mass M located at O on a particle of mass m as the latter moves from A1 to A2 is obtained from r2

U1
A1

-F M
O q r1

r1

GMm dr r2

GMm GMm = r2 r1

The kinetic energy of a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is defined as the scalar quantity

T=

1 2

mv2

From Newtons second law the principle of work and energy is derived. This principle states that the kinetic energy of a particle at A2 can be obtained by adding to its kinetic energy at A1 the work done during the displacement from A1 to A2 by the force F exerted on the particle:

T1 + U1

2=

T2

The power developed by a machine is defined as the time rate at which work is done:

dU Power = =F v dt
where F is the force exerted on the particle and v is the velocity of the particle. The mechanical efficiency, denoted by h, is expressed as

power output h = power input

When the work of a force F is independent of the path followed, the force F is said to be a conservative force, and its work is equal to minus the change in the potential energy V associated with F :

U1

2=

V1 - V2

The potential energy associated with each force considered earlier is Force of gravity (weight):

Vg = Wy GMm Vg = r Ve =
1 2

Gravitational force:
Elastic force exerted by a spring:

kx2

U1

2=

V1 - V2

This relationship between work and potential energy, when combined with the relationship between work and kinetic energy (T1 + U1 2 = T2) results in

T1 + V 1 = T2 + V 1
This is the principle of conservation of energy, which states that when a particle moves under the action of conservative forces, the sum of its kinetic and potential energies remains constant. The application of this principle facilitates the solution of problems involving only conservative forces.

v P r r0
O

v0 f0

P0

When a particle moves under a central force F, its angular momentum about the center of force O remains constant. If the central force F is also conservative, the principles of conservation of angular momentum and conservation of energy can be used jointly to analyze the motion of the particle. For the case of oblique launching, we have

(H O )0 = H O : T0 + V0 = T + V :

r0mv0 sin f0 = rmv sin f

1 2
2 mv0

GMm = r0

1 2

mv2

GMm r

where m is the mass of the vehicle and M is the mass of the earth.

The linear momentum of a particle is defined as the product mv of the mass m of the particle and its velocity v. From Newtons second law, F = ma, we derive the relation

mv 1 +

t2
t1

F dt = mv2

where mv1 and mv2 represent the momentum of the particle at a time t1 and a time t2 , respectively, and where the integral defines the linear impulse of the force F during the corresponding time interval. Therefore,

mv1 + Imp1

2=

mv 2

which expresses the principle of impulse and momentum for a particle.

When the particle considered is subjected to several forces, the sum of the impulses of these forces should be used;

mv1 + SImp1

2=

mv 2

Since vector quantities are involved, it is necessary to consider their x and y components separately.

The method of impulse and momentum is effective in the study of impulsive motion of a particle, when very large forces, called impulsive forces, are applied for a very short interval of time Dt, since this method involves impulses FDt of the forces, rather than the forces themselves. Neglecting the impulse of any nonimpulsive force, we write

mv1 + SFDt = mv2

In the case of the impulsive motion of several particles, we write

Smv1 + SFDt = Smv2

where the second term involves only impulsive, external forces. In the particular case when the sum of the impulses of the external forces is zero, the equation above reduces to

Smv1 = Smv2
that is, the total momentum of the particles is conserved.

Line of Impact

vB B

A
vA

Before Impact

In the case of direct central impact, two colliding bodies A and B move along the line of impact with velocities vA and vB , respectively. Two equations can be used to determine their velocities vA and vB after the impact. The first represents the conservation of the total momentum of the two bodies,

vB B

mAvA + mBvB = mAvA + mBvB

A
vA
After Impact

Line of Impact

mAvA + mBvB = mAvA + mBvB

vB B The second equation relates the relative velocities of the two bodies before and after impact,

A
vA

Before Impact

vB - vA = e (vA - vB )
The constant e is known as the coefficient of restitution; its value lies between 0 and 1 and depends on the material involved. When e = 0, the impact is termed perfectly plastic; when e = 1 , the impact is termed perfectly elastic.

vB B

A
vA
After Impact

Line of Impact

n vB

t B

A vA

In the case of oblique central impact, the velocities of the two colliding bodies before and after impact are resolved into n components along the line of impact and t components along the common tangent to the surfaces in contact. In the t direction,

Before Impact

(vA)t = (vA)t

(vB)t = (vB)t

vB t v A B

while in the n direction

vB

m A (v A ) n + m B (v B ) n = mA (vA)n + mB (vB)n (vB)n - (vA)n = e [(vA)n - (vB)n]

A
vA After Impact

Line of Impact

(vA)t = (vA)t

(vB)t = (vB)t

t B

vB

m A (v A )n + m B (v B )n = mA (vA)n + mB (vB)n (vB)n - (vA)n = e [(vA)n - (vB)n]

Although this method was developed for bodies moving freely before and after impact, it could be extended to the case when one or both of the colliding bodies is constrained in its motion.

A vA

Before Impact

vB t v A B

vB

A
vA After Impact

Chapter 14 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES

The effective force of a particle Pi of a given system is the product miai of its mass mi and its acceleration ai with respect to a newtonian frame of reference centered at O. The system of the external forces acting on the particles and the system of the effective forces of the particles are equipollent; i.e., both systems have the same resultant and the same moment resultant about O :

i =1 n

S Fi =iS miai =1
n

i =1

S (ri x Fi ) =iS (ri x miai) =1

The linear momentum L and the angular momentum Ho about point O are defined as

L = S mivi
i =1 It can be shown that

Ho = S (ri x mivi)
i =1

S F=L

S Mo = Ho

This expresses that the resultant and the moment resultant about O of the external forces are, respectively, equal to the rates of change of the linear momentum and of the angular momentum about O of the system of particles.

The mass center G of a system of particles is defined by a position vector r which satisfies the equation n

mr = S miri
i =1
n

where m represents the total mass S mi. Differentiating both

i =1

members twice with respect to t, we obtain

L = mv

L = ma

where v and a are the .velocity and acceleration of the mass center G. Since S F = L, we obtain

S F = ma
Therefore, the mass center of a system of particles moves as if the entire mass of the system and all the external forces were concentrated at that point.

Consider the motion of the particles of a system with respect to a y centroidal frame Gxyz attached to ri Pi the mass center G of the system and G in translation with respect to the x O newtonian frame Oxyz. The angular x momentum of the system about its z z mass center G is defined as the sum of the moments about G of the momenta mivi of the particles in their motion relative to the frame Gxyz. The same result is obtained by considering the moments about G of the momenta mivi of the particles in their absolute motion. Therefore y mivi

HG = S (ri x mivi) = S (ri x mivi)

i =1
i =1

y y ri G O

mivi Pi x

HG = S (ri x mivi)
= S (ri x mivi)
i =1
We can derive the relation i =1 n

S MG = HG

which expresses that the moment resultant about G of the external forces is equal to the rate of change of the angular momentum about G of the system of particles. When no external force acts on a system of particles, the linear momentum L and the angular momentum Ho of the system are conserved. In problems involving central forces, the angular momentum of the system about the center of force O will also be conserved.

y y ri G O

mivi Pi x

Using the centroidal reference frame Gxyz we note that the kinetic energy of the system can also be obtained by adding the 1 kinetic energy 2 mv2 associated with the motion of the mass center G and the kinetic energy of the system in its motion relative to the frame Gxyz :

The kinetic energy T of a system of particles is defined as the sum of the kinetic energies of the particles. n 1 2 T = 2 S mivi i=1

T = mv 2 +

1 2

n 2 1 mivi 2 iS =1

y y ri G O

mivi Pi x

n 1 2 2 T = mv + 2 S mivi i=1 The principle of work and energy can be applied to a system of particles as well as to individual particles
1 2

T1 + U1

2=

T2

where U1 2 represents the work of all the forces acting on the particles of the system, internal and external. If all the forces acting on the particles of the system are conservative, the principle of conservation of energy can be applied to the system of particles

T1 + V1 = T2 + V2

(mAvA)1 (mBvB)1

S Fdt
t1

t2

y (mAvA)2

(mBvB)2 (mCvC)2

x (mCvC)1

O S

t2

t1

x MOdt

The principle of impulse and momentum for a system of particles can be expressed graphically as shown above. The momenta of the particles at time t1 and the impulses of the external forces from t1 to t2 form a system of vectors equipollent to the system of the momenta of the particles at time t2 .

(mAvA)1 (mBvB)1

y (mAvA)2

(mBvB)2 (mCvC)2

x (mCvC)1

If no external forces act on the system of particles, the systems of momenta shown above are equipollent and we have

L1 = L2

(HO)1 = (HO)2

Many problems involving the motion of systems of particles can be solved by applying simultaneously the principle of impulse and momentum and the principle of conservation of energy or by expressing that the linear momentum, angular momentum, and energy of the system are conserved.

Smivi S A (D m)vA

S F Dt S S M Dt

(D m)vB

Smivi S A

For variable systems of particles, first consider a steady stream of particles, such as a stream of water diverted by a fixed vane or the flow of air through a jet engine. The principle of impulse and momentum is applied to a system S of particles during a time interval Dt, including particles which enter the system at A during that time interval and those (of the same mass Dm) which leave the system at B. The system formed by the momentum (Dm)vA of the particles entering S in the time Dt and the impulses of the forces exerted on S during that time is equipollent to the momentum (Dm)vB of the particles leaving S in the same time Dt.

Smivi S A (D m)vA

S F Dt S S M Dt

(D m)vB Smivi B

S A

Equating the x components, y components, and moments about a fixed point of the vectors involved, we could obtain as many as three equations, which could be solved for the desired unknowns. From this result, we can derive the expression

dm SF = (vB - vA) dt
where vB - vA represents the difference between the vectors vB and vA and where dm/dt is the mass rate of flow of the stream.

v m Dm S (Dm) va

va S F Dt S u = va - v

mv

Consider a system of particles gaining (m + Dm) mass by continually absorbing particles S or losing mass by continually expelling (m + Dm)(v + Dv) particles (as in the case of a rocket). Applying the principle of impulse and momentum to the system during a time interval Dt, we take care to include particles gained or lost during the time interval. The action on a system S of the particles being absorbed by S is equivalent to a thrust

dm P = dt u

v m Dm S (Dm) va

va S F Dt S u = va - v

mv

dm P = dt u

(m + Dm)

S
(m + Dm)(v + Dv)

where dm/dt is the rate at which mass is being absorbed, and u is the velocity of the particles relative to S. In the case of particles being expelled by S , the rate dm/dt is negative and P is in a direction opposite to that in which particles are being expelled.

Chapter 15 KINEMATICS OF RIGID BODIES

A

B q
f

In rigid body translation, all points of the body have the same velocity and the same acceleration at any given instant.

Considering the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, the position O x of the body is defined by the angle q that the line BP, drawn from the axis y A of rotation to a point P of the body, forms with a fixed plane. The magnitude of the velocity of P is r

where q is the time derivative of q.

. ds v= = rq sin f dt

A B q O A f

. ds v= = rq sin f dt
The velocity of P is expressed as

P
r

dr v= =wxr dt
y where the vector

. w = wk = qk

is directed along the fixed axis of rotation and represents the angular velocity of the body.

A B q O A f

dr v= =wxr dt

. w = wk = qk

r
x

Denoting by a the derivative dw/dt of the angular velocity, we express the acceleration of P as

a = a x r + w x (w x r )

differentiating w and recalling that k is constant in magnitude and direction, we find that

.. . a = ak = wk = qk
The vector a represents the angular acceleration of the body and is directed along the fixed axis of rotation.

v = wk x r Consider the motion of a representative slab located in a plane perpendicualr to P the axis of rotation of the body. The angular velocity is perpendicular to the O r slab, so the velocity of point P of the x slab is w = wk
y

v = wk x r

at = ak x r

O a = ak

P an= -w2 r w = wk x

where v is contained in the plane of the slab. The acceleration of point P can be resolved into tangential and normal components respectively equal to

at = ak x r
an= -w2 r

a t = ra
an = rw2

The angular velocity and angular acceleration of the slab can be expressed as

dq w= dt d2q dw a= = 2 dt dt

or

dw w=a dq

Two particular cases of rotation are frequently encountered: uniform rotation and uniformly accelerated rotation. Problems involving either of these motions can be solved by using equations similar to those for uniform rectilinear motion and uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion of a particle, where x, v, and a are replaced by q, w, and a.

vA vB
A B Plane motion =

vA
A

wk
x rB/A A

vA
B

(fixed)

vB/A
B + Rotation about A Translation with A

The most general plane motion of a rigid slab can be considered as the sum of a translation and a rotation. The slab shown can be assumed to translate with point A, while simultaneously rotating about A. It follows that the velocity of any point B of the slab can be expressed as

vB = vA + vB/A
where vA is the velocity of A and vB/A is the relative velocity of B with respect to A.

vA vB
A B Plane motion =

vA
A

wk
x rB/A A

vB/A

vA
B

(fixed)

vA

vB

vB/A
B + Rotation about A Translation with A

vB = vA + vB/A
Denoting by rB/A the position of B relative to A, we note that

vB/A = wk x rB/A

vB/A = (rB/A )w = rw

The fundamental equation relating the absolute velocities of points A and B and the relative velocity of B with respect to A can be expressed in the form of a vector diagram and used to solve problems involving the motion of various types of mechanisms.

Another approach to the solution of problems involving the velocities of the points of a rigid slab in plane motion is based on determination of the instantaneous center of rotation C of the slab.

vB vB vA vA

aA
A B Plane motion =

aB

aA
A B

wk A

ak

aB/A

aA
+

(aB/A)n
B

(aB/A)t

Translation with A

Rotation about A

The fact that any plane motion of a rigid slab can be considered the sum of a translation of the slab with reference to point A and a rotation about A is used to relate the absolute accelerations of any two points A and B of the slab and the relative acceleration of B with respect to A.

aB = aA + aB/A
where aB/A consists of a normal component (aB/A )n of magnitude rw2 directed toward A, and a tangential component (aB/A )t of magnitude ra perpendicular to the line AB.

aA
A B

aB

aA
A B =

wk A

ak

aB/A

aA
+

(aB/A)n
B

(aB/A)t

Plane motion

Translation with A

Rotation about A

aB = aA + aB/A
The fundamental equation relating the absolute accelerations of points A and B and the relative acceleration of B with respect to A can be expressed in the form of a vector diagram and used to determine the accelerations of given points of various mechanisms.
(aB/A)n aB aB/A (aB/A)t aA

aA
A B

aB

aA
A B =

wk A

ak

aB/A

aA
+

(aB/A)n
B

(aB/A)t

Plane motion

Translation with A

Rotation about A

aB = aA + aB/A
(aB/A)n

The instantaneous center of rotation C cannot be used for the determination of accelerations, since point C , in general, does not have zero acceleration.

aB

aB/A (aB/A)t

aA

Y y A W

The rate of change of a vector is the same with respect to a fixed frame of reference and with Q respect to a frame in translation. j x The rate of change of a vector i with respect to a rotating frame O X of reference is different. The k rate of change of a general vector Q with respect a fixed frame OXYZ and z with respect to a frame Oxyz rotating with an angular velocity W is

(Q)OXYZ = (Q)Oxyz + W x Q
The first part represents the rate of change of Q with respect to the rotating frame Oxyz and the second part, W x Q, is induced by the rotation of the frame Oxyz.

vP = W x r y

vP/F = (r)Oxy P

P x X

r
O W

Consider the two-dimensional analysis of a particle P moving with respect to a frame F rotating with an angular velocity W about a fixed axis. The absolute velocity of P can be expressed as

vP = vP + vP/F
where vP = absolute velocity of particle P vP = velocity of point P of moving frame F coinciding with P vP/F = velocity of P relative to moving frame F
The same expression for vP is obtained if the frame is in translation rather than rotation.

vP = W x r y

vP/F = (r)Oxy P

P x X

r
O W

When the frame is in rotation, the expression for the acceleration of P contains an additional term ac called the complementary acceleration or Coriolis acceleration.

aP = aP + aP/F + ac

where aP = absolute acceleration of particle P aP = acceleration of point P of moving frame F coinciding with P aP/F = acceleration of P relative to moving frame F

ac = 2W x (r)Oxy = 2W x vP/F = complementary, or Coriolis, acceleration

vP = W x r y

. vP/F = (r)Oxy
P

aP = aP + aP/F + ac
aP = absolute acceleration of particle P aP = acceleration of point P of moving frame F coinciding with P aP/F = acceleration of P relative to moving frame F ac = 2W x (r)Oxy = 2W x vP/F

P x X

r
O W

Since W and vP/F are perpendicular to each other in the case of plane motion, the Coriolis acceleration has a magnitude ac = 2WvP/F . Its direction is obtained by rotating the vector vP/F through 90o in the sense of rotation of the moving frame. The Coriolis acceleration can be used to analyze the motion of mechanisms which contain parts sliding on each other.

In three dimensions, the most general P displacement of a rigid body with a fixed point O is equivalent to a rotation of the r body about an axis through O. The O angular velocity w and the instantaneous axis of rotation of the body at a given instant can be defined. The velocity of a point P of the body can be expressed as

dr v= = wxr dt

Differentiating this expression, the acceleration is

a = a x r + w x (w x r )
Since the direction of w changes from instant to instant, the angular acceleration a is, in general, not directed along the instanteneous axis of rotation.

a Y

Y w B A

rB/A X

The most general motion of a rigid body in space is equivalent, at any given instant, to the sum of a translation and a rotation. Considering two particles A and B of the body

where vB/A is the velocity of B relative to a frame AXYZ attached to A and Z of fixed orientation. Denoting by rB/A the position vector of B relative to A, we write
X

rA

vB = vA + vB/A

vB = vA + w x rB/A
where w is the angular velocity of the body at the instant considered. The acceleration of B is, by similar reasoning

aB = aA + aB/A

or

aB = aA + a x rB/A + w x (w x rB/A)

y
A W

j r
O k

x X

Consider the three-dimensional motion of a particle P relative to a frame Oxyz rotating with an angular velocity W with respect to fixed frame OXYZ. The absolute velocity vP of P can be expressed as

vP = vP + vP/F

where vP = absolute velocity of particle P vP = velocity of point P of moving frame F coinciding with P vP/F = velocity of P relative to moving frame F

y
A W

j r
O k

x X

The absolute acceleration aP of P is expressed as

aP = aP + aP/F + ac

where aP = absolute acceleration of particle P aP = acceleration of point P of moving frame F coinciding with P aP/F = acceleration of P relative to moving frame F . ac = 2W x (r)Oxy = 2W x vP/F = complementary (Coriolis) acceleration

The magnitude ac of the Coriolis acceleration is not equal to 2WvP/F except in the special case when W and vP/F are perpendicular to each other.

Y y rP/A Y Z P x

The equations

vP = vP + vP/F
and

A
rP

aP = aP + aP/F + ac

remain valid when the frame z Axyz moves in a known, but arbitrary, fashion with O X respect to the fixed frame Z OXYZ, provided that the motion of A is included in the terms vP and aP representing the absolute velocity and acceleration of the coinciding point P.

rA

Rotating frames of reference are particularly useful in the study of the three-dimensional motion of rigid bodies.

Chapter 16 PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES: FORCES AND ACCELERATIONS

The relations existing F4 F1 between the forces acting ma on a rigid body, the shape and mass of the body, F3 and the motion produced G G are studied as the kinetics of rigid bodies. In general, our analysis is restricted F2 to the plane motion of rigid slabs and rigid bodies symmetrical with respect to the reference plane.

HG

.
F1 F4 HG ma F3

The two equations for the motion of a system of particles apply to the most general case of the motion of a rigid body. The first equation defines the motion of the mass center G of the body.

F2

SF = ma
where m is the mass of the body, and a the acceleration of G. The second is related to the motion of the body relative to a centroidal frame of reference.

. SMG = HG

.
F1 F4 HG ma F3

SF = ma .. SMG = HG
where HG is the rate of change of the angular momentum HG of the body about its mass center G.

F2

These equations express that the system of the external forces is equipollent to the system consisting of the vector ma attached . at G and the couple of moment HG.

F1

F4

HG ma

F3

For the plane motion of rigid slabs and rigid bodies symmetrical with respect to the reference plane, the angular momentum of the body is expressed as

F2

HG = I w

where I is the moment of inertia of the body about a centroidal axis perpendicular to the reference plane and w is the angular velocity of the body. Differentiating both members of this equation

H G = Iw = Ia

For the restricted case ma considered here, the rate of change of the angular G F 3 G momentum of the rigid body can be represented Ia by a vector of the same F2 direction as a (i.e. perpendicular to the plane of reference) and of magnitude Ia. The plane motion of a rigid body symmetrical with respect to the reference plane is defined by the three scalar equations

F1

F4

SFx = max

SFy = may

SMG = Ia

The external forces acting on a rigid body are actually equivalent to the effective forces of the various particles forming the body. This statement is known as dAlemberts principle.

dAlemberts principle can be expressed in the form ma of a vector diagram, where G F3 the effective forces are G represented by a vector Ia ma attached at G and a F2 couple Ia. In the case of a slab in translation, the (a) (b) effective forces (part b of the figure) reduce to a single vector ma ; while in the particular case of a slab in centroidal rotation, they reduce to the single couple Ia ; in any other case of plane motion, both the vector ma and Ia should be included.

F1

F4

Any problem involving the plane motion of a rigid slab ma may be solved by drawing a free-body-diagram G F3 G equation similar to that shown. Three equations of Ia of motion can then be F2 obtained by equating the x components, y components, and moments about an arbitrary point A, of the forces and vectors involved. F1
This method can be used to solve problems involving the plane motion of several connected rigid bodies. Some problems, such as noncentroidal rotation of rods and plates, the rolling motion of spheres and wheels, and the plane motion of various types of linkages, which move under constraints, must be supplemented by kinematic analysis.

F4

Chapter 17 PLANE MOTION OF RIGID BODIES: ENERGY AND MOMENTUM METHODS

The principle of work and energy for a rigid body is expressed in the form

T1 + U1

2=

T2

where T1 and T2 represent the initial and final values of the kinetic energy of the rigid body and U1 2 the work of the external forces acting on the rigid body.
The work of a force F applied at a point A is s2

U1

s1 where F is the magnitude of the force, a the angle it forms with the direction of motion of A, and s the variable of integration measuring the distance traveled by A along its path.

(F cos a) ds

The work of a couple of moment M applied to a rigid body during a rotation in q of the rigid body is

U1

q2

M ds

q1

The kinetic energy of a rigid body in plane motion is

T=
G

1 2

mv + Iw2
2

1 2

where v is the velocity of the mass center G of the body, w the angular velocity of the body, and I its moment of inertia about an axis through G perpendicular to the plane of reference.

T=
G

1 2

mv + Iw2
2

1 2

The kinetic energy of a rigid body in plane motion may be separated into two parts: w v 2 associated (1) the kinetic energy 1 mv 2 with the motion of the mass center G of the 1 body, and (2) the kinetic energy 2 Iw2 associated with the rotation of the body about G. For a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis through O with an angular velocity w, O 1 T = 2 IOw2 w where IO is the moment of inertia of the body about the fixed axis.

When a rigid body, or a system of rigid bodies, moves under the action of conservative forces, the principle of work and energy may be expressed in the form

T1 + V1 = T2 + V2
which is referred to as the principle of conservation of energy. This principle may be used to solve problems involving conservative forces such as the force of gravity or the force exerted by a spring. The concept of power is extended to a rotating body subjected to a couple

dU M dq Power = = = Mw dt dt
where M is the magnitude of the couple and w is the angular velocity of the body.

The principle of impulse and momentum derived for a system of particles can be applied to the motion of a rigid body.

Syst Momenta1 + Syst Ext Imp1

2=

Syst Momenta2

For a rigid slab or a rigid body symmetrical with respect to the reference plane, the system of the momenta of the particles forming the body is equivalent to a vector mv attached to the mass center G of the body and a couple Iw. The vector mv is associated with translation of the body with G and represents the linear momentum of the body, while the couple Iw corresponds to the rotation of (Dm)v the body about G mv and represents the P angular momentum Iw of the body about an axis through G.

The principle of impulse and momentum can be expressed graphically by drawing three diagrams representing respectively the system of initial momenta of the body, the impulses of the external forces acting on it, and the system of the final momenta of the body. Summing and equating respectively the x components, the y components, and the moments about any given point of the vectors shown in the figure, we obtain three equations of motion which may be solved for the desired unknowns. Fdt y G Iw1

mv1

y
G

mv2

Iw2
O x O

 Fdt

y
G

mv1

y G

mv2

Iw1
O

Iw2

In problems dealing with several connected rigid bodies each body may be considered separately or, if no more than three unknowns are involved, the principles of impulse and momentum may be applied to the entire system, considering the impulses of the external forces only. When the lines of action of all the external forces acting on a system of rigid bodies pass through a given point O, the angular momentum of the system about O is conserved.

The eccentric impact of two rigid bodies is defined as an impact in which the mass centers of the colliding bodies are not located on the line of impact. In such a situation a relation for the impact involving the coefficient of restitution e holds, and the velocities of points A and B where contact occurs during the impact should be used.

n B A n vB

vA
(a) Before impact n B

vB vA

(vB)n - (vA)n = e[(vA)n - (vB)n]

(b) After impact

n B A n vA (a) Before impact vB n B A vA

vB

(b) After impact

(vB)n - (vA)n = e[(vA)n - (vB)n]

where (vA)n and (vB)n are the components along the line of impact of the velocities of A and B before impact, and (vA)n and (vB)n their components after impact. This equation is applicable not only when the colliding bodies move freely after impact but also when the bodies are partially constrained in their motion.

Chapter 18 KINETICS OF RIGID BODIES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

The two fundamental equations for the motion of a system of particles

SF = ma
Y HG G z O X y

. SMG = HG
provide the foundation for three dimensional analysis, just as they do in the case of plane motion of rigid bodies. The computation of the angular . momentum HG and its derivative HG , however, are now considerably more involved.

The rectangular components of the angular momentum HG of a rigid body may be expressed in terms of the components of its angular velocity w and of its centroidal moments and products of inertia:

Hx = +Ix wx - Ixywy - Ixzwz Hy = -Iyxwx + Iy wy - Iyzwz Hz = -Izxwx - Izywy + Iz wz

Y HG G z O X x y w If principal axes of inertia Gxyz are used, these relations reduce to

Hx = Ix wx Hy = Iy wy Hz = Iz wz

Y
HG

G z Z O

In general, the angular momentum HG and the angular velocity w do not have the same direction. They will, however, have the same direction if w is directed along one of the principal axes of inertia of the body. HG

The system of the momenta of the particles forming a rigid body may be reduced to the vector mv attached at G and the couple HG. Once these are determined, the angular momentum HO of the body about any given point O may be obtained by writing
Z

mv

G r O X

HO = r x mv + HG

In the particular case of a rigid body constrained to rotate about a fixed point O, the components of the angular momentum HO of the body about O may be obtained directly from the components of its angular velocity and from its moments and products of inertia with respect to axes through O. y

HO O z

w x

Hx = +Ix wx - Ixywy - Ixzwz Hy = -Iyxwx + Iy wy - Iyzwz Hz = -Izxwx - Izywy + Iz wz

The principle of impulse and momentum for a rigid body in threedimensional motion is expressed by the same fundamental formula used for a rigid body in plane motion.

Syst Momenta1 + Syst Ext Imp1

2=

Syst Momenta2

The initial and final system momenta should be represented as shown in the figure and computed from HG Y mv H = +I w - I w - I w
x x x xy y xz z

Hy = -Iyxwx + Iy wy - Iyzwz Hz = -Izxwx - Izywy + Iz wz

or
G r Z O X

Hx = Ix wx

Hy = Iy wy

Hz = Iz wz

The kinetic energy of a rigid body in three-dimensional motion may be divided into two parts, one associated with the motion of its mass center G, and the other with its motion about G. Using principal axes x, y, z, we write

1 1 2 2 2 2 T = 2 mv + 2 (Ixwx + I w + I w y y z z )
where v = velocity of the mass center w = angular velocity m = mass of rigid body Ix, Iy, Iz = principal centroidal moments of inertia.

In the case of a rigid body constrained to rotate about a fixed point O, the kinetic energy may be expressed as

1 2 2 2 T = 2 (Ixwx + Iywy + Izwz )

where x, y, and z axes are the principal axes of inertia of the body at O. The equations for kinetic energy make it possible to extend to the three-dimensional motion of a rigid body the application of the principle of work and energy and of the principle of conservation of energy.

Y Y HG

The fundamental equations w x

SF = ma

. SMG = HG

can be applied to the motion of a rigid body in three dimensions. We X G first recall that HG represents the Z angular momentum of the body relative to a centroidal frame X z O GXYZ of fixed orientation and . Z that HG represents the rate of change of HG with respect to that frame. As the body rotates, its moments and products of inertia with respect to GXYZ change continually. It is therefore more convenient to use a frame Gxyz rotating with the body to resolve w into components and to compute the moments and products of inertia which are used to determine HG.

Y Y HG

w x X X

SF = ma
.

. SMG = HG

G
Z O Z z

HG represents the rate of change of HG with respect to the frame GXYZ of fixed orientation, therefore

. . HG = (HG )Gxyz + W x HG

where HG = angular momentum of the body with respect to the frame GXYZ of fixed orientation . (HG)Gxyz = rate of change of HG with respect to the rotating frame Gxyz W = angular velocity of the rotating frame Gxyz

Y Y HG

w x X X

G
Z O Z z

Substituting HG above into S MG ,

SF = ma . . HG = (HG )Gxyz + W x HG .

. SMG = HG

. SMG = (HG )Gxyz + W x HG

If the rotating frame is attached to the body, its angular velocity W is identical to the angular velocity w of the body. Setting W = w , using principal axes, and writing this equation in scalar form, we obtain Eulers equations of moton.

Y y w x X

HO O
Z z

In the case of a rigid body constrained to rotate about a fixed point O, an alternative method of solution may be used, involving moments of the forces and the rate of change of the angular momentum about point O.

. SMO = (HO )Oxyz + W x HO

where SMO = sum of the moments about O of the forces applied to the rigid body HO = angular momentum of the body with respect to the frame OXYZ . (HO)Oxyz = rate of change of HO with respect to the rotating frame Oxyz W = angular velocity of the rotating frame Oxyz

Z
A

C
O B D

f
B

y
C
A

When the motion of gyroscopes and other axisymmetrical bodies are considered, the Eulerian angles f, q, and y are introduced to define the position of a gyroscope. The time derivatives of these angles represent, respectively, the rates of precession, nutation, and spin of the gyroscope. The angular velocity w is expressed in terms of these derivatives as

w = -f sin q i + q j + (y + f cos q)k

Z
A

w = -f sin q i + q j + (y + f cos q)k

B D

C
O

f
B

y
C
A

The unit vectors are associated with the frame Oxyz attached to the inner gimbal of the gyroscope (figure to the right)and rotate, therfore, with the angular velocity

fK
A

C O B C A

qj
B

yk

W = -f sin q i + q j + f cos q k

Z
A

C O B D

f
B

y
C A

HO = -If sin q i + Iq j + I(y + f cos q)k . . . Substituting for HO and W = -f sin q i + q j + f cos q kinto . SMO = (HO )Oxyz + W x HO
leads to the differential equations defining the motion of the gyroscope.

Denoting by I the moment of inertia of the gyroscope with respect to its spin axis z and by I its moment of inertia with respect to a transverse axis through O, we write

fK
A

qj
B

O
B C

. yk
A

Z q

fK
O B

yk
B

SMO
x

In the particular case of the steady precession of a gyroscope,. the angle q , the rate of precession f , and the . rate of spin y remain constant. Such motion is possible only if the moments of the external forces about O satisfy the relation

SMO = (Iwz - If cos q)f sin q j

i.e., if the external forces reduce to a couple of moment equal to the right-hand member of the equation above and applied about an axis perpendicular to the precession axis and to the spin axis.

Chapter 19 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS

Consider the free vibration of a particle, i.e., the motion of a particle P subjected to a restoring force proportional to the displacement of the particle - such as the force exerted by a spring. If the displacement x of the particle P is measured from its equilibrium position O, the resultant F of the forces acting on P (including its weight) has a magnitude kx and is directed toward O. Applying Newtons .. second law (F = ma) with a = x, the differential equation of motion is

- xm

O
Equilibrium

+xm

mx + kx = 0

..

mx + kx = 0
- xm setting wn2 = k/m

..

..
O
Equilibrium

x + wn2x = 0
x P The motion defined by this expression is called simple harmonic motion.

The solution of this equation, which represents the displacement of the particle P is expressed as +xm

x = xm sin (wnt + f)
where xm = amplitude of the vibration wn = k/m = natural circular frequency f = phase angle

- xm

x + wn2x = 0 x = xm sin (wnt + f)

The period of the vibration (i.e., the time required for a full cycle) and its frequency (i.e., the number of cycles per second) are expressed as

..

O
Equilibrium

+xm

2p Period = tn = w n 1 wn Frequency = fn = = 2p tn
am = xmwn2

The velocity and acceleration of the particle are obtained by differentiating x, and their maximum values are

vm = xmwn

xm

f
wnt QO am= xmwn2 Q

P v
x

wnt + f

vm= xmwn

The oscillatory motion of the particle P may be represented by the projection on the x axis of the motion of a point Q describing an auxiliary circle of radius xm with the constant angular velocity wn. The instantaneous values of the velocity and acceleration of P may then be obtained by projecting on the x axis the vectors vm and am representing, respectively, the velocity and acceleration of Q.

While the motion of a simple pendulum is not truely a simple harmonic motion, the formulas given above may be used with wn 2 = g/l to calculate the period and frequency of the small oscillations of a simple pendulum. The free vibrations of a rigid body may be analyzed by choosing an appropriate variable, such as a distance x or an angle q , to define the position of the body, drawing a diagram expressing the equivalence of the external and effective forces, and writing an equation relating the selected variable and its second derivative. If the equation obtained is of the form

..

x + wn2x = 0

or

q + wn2q = 0

..

the vibration considered is a simple harmonic motion and its period and frequency may be obtained.

The principle of conservation of energy may be used as an alternative method for the determination of the period and frequency of the simple harmonic motion of a particle or rigid body. Choosing an appropriate variable, such as q, to define the position of the system, we express that the total energy of the system is conserved, T1 + V1 = T2 + V2 , between the position of maximum displacement (q1 = qm) and the position . . of maximum velocity (q 2 = qm). If the motion considered is simple harmonic, the two members of the equation obtained . consist of homogeneous quadratic expressions in qm and qm , . respectively. Substituting qm = qm wn in this equation, we may factor out qm2 and solve for the circular frequency wn.

x
Equilibrium

The forced vibration of a mechanical system occurs when the system is subjected to a periodic force or when it is elastically connected to a support which has an alternating motion. The differential dm sin wf t equation describing dm each system is presented wf t = 0 wf t below.

P = Pm sin wf t

mx + kx = Pm sin wf t mx + kx = kdm sin wf t

..
x
Equilibrium

..

mx + kx = Pm sin wf t mx + kx = kdm sin wf t

x
Equilibrium

..

dm wf t = 0

dm sin wf t wf t

..

The general solution of these equations is obtained by adding a particular solution of the form

P = Pm sin wf t

xpart = xm sin wf t

x
Equilibrium

to the general solution of the corresponding homogeneous equation. The particular solution represents the steady-state vibration of the system, while the solution of the homogeneous equation represents a transient free vibration which may generally be neglected.

.. .. mx + kx = kdm sin wf t mx + kx = Pm sin wf t xpart = xm sin wf t

x
Equilibrium

P = Pm sin wf t dm dm sin wf t

Dividing the amplitude xm of the steadystate vibration by Pm/k in the case of a periodic force, or by dm in the case of an oscillating support, the magnification factor of the vibration is defined by

Magnification factor =

wf t = 0

wf t =

xm Pm /k

xm dm

1 1 - (wf /wn )2

Equilibrium

.. .. mx + kx = kdm sin wf t mx + kx = Pm sin wf t xpart = xm sin wf t

x
Equilibrium

xm Magnification factor = P /k m
=

xm dm

P = Pm sin wf t dm dm sin wf t

1 1 - (wf / wn)2

wf t = 0

Equilibrium

The amplitude xm of the forced vibration becomes infinite when wf = wn , i.e., when the forced frequency is equal to the wf t natural frequency of the system. The impressed force or impressed support movement is then said to be in resonance with the system. Actually the amplitude of the vibration remains finite, due to damping forces.

The equation of motion describing the damped free vibrations of a system with viscous damping is

mx + cx + kx = 0
where c is a constant called the coeficient of viscous damping. Defining the critical damping coefficient cc as

..

cc = 2 m

k = 2mwn m

where wn is the natural frequency of the system in the absence of damping, we distinguish three different cases of damping, namely, (1) heavy damping, when c > cc, (2) critical damping, when c = cc, (3) light damping, when c < cc. In the first two cases, the system when disturbed tends to regain its equilibrium position without oscillation. In the third case, the motion is vibratory with diminishing amplitude.

The damped forced vibrations of a mechanical system occurs when a system with viscous damping is subjected to a periodic force P of magnitude P = Pm sin wf t or when it is elastically connected to a support with an alternating motion d = d m sin wf t. In the first case the motion is defined by the differential equation

mx + cx + kx = Pm sin wf t
In the second case the motion is defined by the differential equation

..

mx + cx + kx = kdm sin wf t

..

The steady-state vibration of the system is represented by a . .. particular solution of mx + cx + kx = Pm sin wf t of the form

xpart = xm sin (wf t - f)

Dividing the amplitude xm of the steady-state vibration by Pm/k in the case of a periodic force, or by dm in the case of an oscillating support, the expression for the magnification factor is

xm xm = = Pm/k dm

1 [1 - (wf / wn)2]2 + [2(c/cc)(wf / wn)]2

where wn = k/m = natural circular frequency of undamped system cc = 2m wn = critical damping coefficient c/cc = damping factor

xpart = xm sin (wf t - f)

xm xm Pm/k = dm = 1 [1 - (wf / wn)2]2 + [2(c/cc)(wf / wn)]2

In addition, the phase difference j between the impressed force or support movement and the resulting steady-state vibration of the damped system is defined by the relationship

2(c/cc) (wf / wn) tan j = 1 - (w / w )2 f n

The vibrations of mechanical systems and the oscillations of electrical circuits are defined by the same differential equations. Electrical analogues of mechanical systems may therefore be used to study or predict the behavior of these systems.