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Ch 5.

Wireless Network Principles

Myungchul Kim mckim@icu.ac.kr

SESSION: Wireless Communication Principles


Wireless Network Classification Transmitters/Receivers Antennas Frequency Allocation Propagation Modes Noise Characteristics Signal Encoding Error Detection and Correction

Wireless Networks

Wireless LANs

Wireless MANs

Wireless WANs

Personal Area Networks Example1: Bluetooth 1 Mbps, 10 Meters Other examples: wireless sensor networks, UWB

Business LANs

Wireless Local Loops (Fixed Wireless)

Cellular Networks

Satellite Systems

Paging Networks

Example1: 802.11b 11 Mbps, 100 Meters Other examples: 802.11g, HiperLAN2

Example1: LMDS 37 Mbps, 2-4 Km Example2: FSO 1.25 Gbps 1-2 KM

Example1: GSM, 9.6 Kbps, wide coverage Example2: 3G, 2 Mbps, wide coverage

Example1: Motorola Iridium up to 64 Mbps globally Example 2: Deep space communication

Example1: FLEX, 1.2 Kbps Example2: ReFLEX, 6.4Kbps

Factors in Designing Wireless Networks


Factor Frequency Allocations Location services Why Important Need to know what frequency range to operate. May need licenses to operate in several ranges Essential because the users of mobile services change their location (e.g., a cellular phone). Also important for 911 calls. Multiple Access mechanisms Antennas and Propagation Signal encoding and Error Correction How users can share the sme medium without interfering with ach other Help in understanding the type of errors and how to deal with them Better encoding can improve data rate and correction can save valueable time.

Wireless Frequency Allocation


Radio frequencies range from 9KHz to 400GHZ (ITU) Microwave frequency range
1 GHz to 40 GHz Directional beams possible Suitable for point-to-point transmission Used for satellite communications

Radio frequency range


30 MHz to 1 GHz Suitable for omnidirectional applications

Infrared frequency range


Roughly, 3x1011 to 2x1014 Hz Useful in local point-to-point multipoint applications within confined areas

Wireless Radio Spectrum; Frequency Allocation


Wavelength Frequency
Gamma-rays X-rays

0.1 m 1 mm 10 mm THF - terribly high frequency EHF - extra high frequency

3000 GHz 300 GHz 30GHz 3GHz 300 MHz 30 MHz 3MHz

Infrared

100 mm
1m 10 m 100 m

SHF - super high frequency


UHF - ultra high frequency VHF - very high frequency HF - high frequency

Micro Waves

1 Km
10 Km 100 Km

MF - medium frequency
LF - low frequency VLF - very low frequency

300KHz
30Khz 3KHz

Radio Waves

Source: Bekkers, R. and Smits, J., Mobile Telecommunications, Artech, 2000.

Frequency Regulations
Frequencies from 9KHz to 300 MHZ in high demand (especially VHF: 30-300MHZ) In wireless, lower frequencies (omnidirectional) Two unlicensed bands in the US (counterparts elsewhere)
Industrial, Science, and Medicine (ISM): 2.4 GHz Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII): 5.2 GHz

Regional, national, and international issues Procedures for military, emergency, air traffic control, etc Different agencies license and regulate
www.fcc.gov - US www.open.gov.uk/radiocom -- for UK Others (e.g., ETSI, five agencies in Japan)

Interferences across national borders handled through Radio Communications Bureaus

ITU (International Telecom Union)


Headquartered in Geneva (next to UN) Several sectors:
ITU-R(radiocommunications)- several study groups and World Radio Conferences (WCRs) ITU-T (standards) - subsummed formerly CCITT ITU-D (development) - developing countries

National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA - www.ntia.gov)


NTIA is part of The United States Commerce Department Maintain a spectrum chart, dated March 1996, that depicts the radio frequency spectrum allocations to radio services operated within the United States. Graphically partitions the radio frequency spectrum, extending from 9 kHz to 300 GHz, into over 450 frequency bands Copies of this chart can be viewed on line at

http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.html; and printed copies of this chart are available from the U.S. Government Printing Office (ph: 202 512 1800; stock #: 003-000-00652-2 cost is: $6.00

Cell 1

Location Based Services (LBSs)

Cell 2

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

HLR

VLR

Mobile User Cordless connection

Base Transceiver Station (BTS) HLR = Home Location Register VLR = Visitor Location Register

Techniques: Cell-id based GPS assisted Angle of arrival Others

Wired connection

Table 5-4

Wireless Transmission
Antenna
Transmitter Antenna Receiver

Wireless Communication systems consist of:


transmitters Antennas: radiates electromagnetic energy into air Receivers

In some cases, transmitters and receivers are on same device, called transceivers (e.g., cellular phones)

Transmitters
Amplifier Mixer Oscilator Filter Amplifier Transmitter

Antenna

Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz and the original source generates a signal at 300 MHZ. Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal Oscilator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz Mixer - combines original signal with oscilator and produces 900 MHz (does modulation, etc) Filter - selects correct frequency (required by FCC) Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending it (higher f in some cases)

Receivers perform similar operations but in reverse direction

Antennas
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors to send/receive RF signals
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space

In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and reception

Omnidirectional Antenna (lower frequency)

Directional Antenna (higher frequency)

Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna Depicted as two-dimensional cross section

Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation pattern

Antenna Types Isotropic antenna (idealized)


Radiates power equally in all directions

Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna) Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)

Parabolic Reflective Antenna (highly focussed, directional)

Basic idea: propagate signals to follow objects as they move around and minimize noise. Mixture of:
Switched beam systems: a number of fixed beams at an antenna site the beam with least interference and best signal strength is chosen. Adaptive antennas: array of antennas that can adjust patterns based on noise, interference, and location of objects

Smart Antennas

Great deal of activity Liberti, J. and Rappaport, T., Smart Antennas for Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall

Smart Antennas
user

Interferer Interferer
a) Coverage Pattern (Top View) for a Switched Beam Antenna with 4 Elements

Interferer

b) Coverage Pattern (Top View) for an Adaptive Antenna giving Preferential treatment for the User and minimizing the Interferers

Terrestrial Microwave (1GHz to 40GHz)


Description of common microwave antenna
Most common: Parabolic "dish", 3 m in diameter Fixed rigidly and focuses a narrow beam Achieves line-of-sight transmission to receiving antenna (relays used in between) Located at substantial heights above ground level

Applications
Long haul telecommunications service (instead of fiber, coax) -- requires less repeaters but line of sight Short point-to-point links between buildings (e.g, closed circuit TV, LANs, bypass local telephone companies) Most common BW= 4GHZ (can give up to 200 Mbps)

Loss proportional to log (d/w)

Description of communication satellite

Satellite Microwave (1GHz to 20 GHz, typically)

Microwave relay station Used to link two or more ground-based microwave transmitter/receivers Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency (downlink)

Applications
Television distribution (e.g., PBS uses satellite exclusively) Long-distance telephone transmission between telephone exchange offices Private business networks (lease channels, expensive)

Broadcast Radio (30 MHz to 1GHz)


Description of broadcast radio antennas
Omnidirectional (main differentiator from microwave) Antennas not required to be dish-shaped Antennas need not be rigidly mounted to a precise alignment

Applications
Broadcast radio
VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television

Due to new apps, the frequency range is expanded frequently

Infrared
does not penetrate walls used in remote control devices

Propagation Modes
Signal Transmission Antenna a) Ground Wave Propagation Earth Ionosphere Receiving Antenna

Signal b) Sky Wave Propagation Earth

Signal c) Line-of-Sight Propagation Earth

Table 5-5

LOS Wireless Transmission Impairments


Attenuation and attenuation distortion Free space loss Noise Atmospheric absorption Multipath Refraction Thermal noise

Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission medium Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion

Approach: amplifiers that strengthen higher frequencies

Categories of Noise
Thermal Noise Intermodulation noise Crosstalk Impulse Noise

Multipath Propagation

R S

D R= Reflection S=Scattering D= Diffraction

Digital versus analog communications


Fig 5-13

Signal Encoding (Modulation)


Modulation of digital signals
When only analog transmission facilities are available, digital to analog conversion required

Modulation of analog signals


A higher frequency may be needed for effective transmission Modulation permits frequency division multiplexing PCM and variants used frequently

Pulse Code Modulation


Based on the sampling theorem (sample rate should be higher than twice highest frequency) Each analog sample is assigned a binary code
Analog samples are referred to as pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) samples

The digital signal consists of block of n bits, where each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse
8000 samples per second, 8 bits for levels (256)

Pulse Code Modulation

Amplitude

Samples This shows 12 samples, each sample represents the amplitude of the wave. These samples as sent as digital data and then reconstructed into the original signal on the receiving side.

Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by staircase function
Moves up or down by one quantization level () at each sampling interval

The bit stream approximates derivative of analog signal (rather than amplitude)
1 is generated if function goes up 0 otherwise

Delta Modulation
Analog Signal Signal Amplitude Staircase Function

Time

Multiple Access Techniques


Session4 Frequency Session3 Frequency Session2 Session4 Session3 Session1

Session2
Session1 Time

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Frequency

Time Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) All sessions based on a code Time PCM, PSK (6 ms frames) Used by AT&T wireless, Bellsouth, Ericsson

Rarely used at present

Spread spectrum, Direct Used by Sprint PCS, 3G systems

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

FDMA and TDMA


FDMA:
FM radio divides the spectrum into 30 Khz channels. FDMA divides 30 Khz channels into 3 (10 KHz each) Base station cost is high and very limited capacity

TDMA:
available since 1992 each subscriber transmits at different times 6 millisecond frames, each divided into 1 ms time slots each time slot has a header and data errors may corrupt headers and cause time slots and in some cases the whole frame is lost TIA standard IS-54 defines the TDMA interface between a mobile station and cell-site radio (uses PCM for speech encoding, DQPSK for modulation) Call quality is similar to FDMA but can handle more calls (AT&T) Several extensions of TDMA (can support 15 users per voice channel)

CDMA
Based on spread spectrum - direct sequencing is more prevalent (TIA IS-95) Groups of bits from digitized speech are tagged with a unique code that is associated with a cellular call. Several cellular calls are combined and transmitted over 1.25MHz and then reassembled on the receiver side Receiver detects a signal by tuning to correct phase position between incoming and locally generated signals from code Speech coder operates at a variable rate (fully when user is talking) Adjusts for near-far power adjustments (nearer stations generate less powerful signals) When powered on, the mobile system knows the CDMA frequency, so it tunes to that frequency and searches for a pilot signal (pilot signals represent base stations) Mobile station will pick the strongest pilot and register When moving from cell to cell, new pilot is picked up

TDMA versus CDMA Controversy


TDMA and CDMA are accepted TIA (telecom Industry Association) standards (IS-54, IS-95) Hardware vendors are lobbying hard Many, many variants in industry Performance reports are conflicting and confusing in terms of:
Call clarity: CDMA appears to be better but questioned Network capacity: CDMA may be more efficient than TDMA Privacy: CDMA codes provide more privacy Economy: TDMA allows same equipment for multiple users Maturity: TDMA is very mature (in use since 1992) More features; TDMA offers more but CDMA can do it also

Spread Spectrum

Spread Spectrum
Input is fed into a channel encoder
Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth

Signal is further modulated using sequence of digits


Spreading code or spreading sequence Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number generator

Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of signal to be transmitted On receiving end, digit sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum signal Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover data

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)


Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series of radio frequencies Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals Channel sequence dictated by spreading code Receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization with transmitter, picks up message Advantages
Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only at knocking out a few bits

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)


Energy 4 7 5 1 6 8 3 2

Data Bits

Frequency f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)


Each bit in original signal is represented by multiple bits in the transmitted signal Spreading code spreads signal across a wider frequency band
Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used

One technique combines digital information stream with the spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR

Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)


Basic Principles of CDMA
D = rate of data signal Break each bit into k chips
Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern

Chip data rate of new channel = kD

CDMA Example
If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
For a 1 bit, A sends code as chip pattern
<c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>

For a 0 bit, A sends complement of code


<-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>

Receiver knows senders code and performs electronic decode function


<d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = senders code

Su d d1 c1 d 2 c 2 d 3 c3 d 4 c 4 d 5 c5 d 6 c6

User A code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>


To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1> To send a 0 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>

CDMA Example

User B code = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>


To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1>

Receiver receiving with As code


(As code) x (received chip pattern)
User A 1 bit: 6 -> 1 User A 0 bit: -6 -> 0 User B 1 bit: 0 -> unwanted signal ignored

Coding and Error Control

Coping with Data Transmission Errors


Error detection codes
Detects the presence of an error

Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols


Block of data with error is discarded Transmitter retransmits that block of data

Error correction codes, or forward correction codes (FEC)


Designed to detect and correct errors

Error Detection Process


Transmitter
For a given frame, an error-detecting code (check bits) is calculated from data bits Check bits are appended to data bits

Receiver
Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits Calculates check bits from received data bits Compares calculated check bits against received check bits Detected error occurs if mismatch

Wireless Transmission Errors


Error detection requires retransmission Detection inadequate for wireless applications
Error rate on wireless link can be high, results in a large number of retransmissions Long propagation delay compared to transmission time

Best to correct errors by using


Block Error Correction Turbo Codes

Hamming distance for 2 n-bit binary sequences, the number of different bits
E.g., v1=011011; v2=110001; d(v1, v2)=3

Block Code (Error Correction)

For each data block, create a codeword Send the codeword If the code is invalid, look for data with shortest hamming distance (possibly correct code) Datablock (k=2) Codeword (n=5) 00 00000 01 00111 10 11001 11 11110 Suppose you receive codeword 00100 (error) Closest is 00000 (only one bit different)

Turbo Codes
Good block error correction requires large codewords Large codewords are complex to process and waste bandwidth Turbo codes break the codewords into two
Two encoders on transmitters Two decoders on receivers

Shown to be very efficient Main limitation: decoding is complex and introduces delays Many applications in deep space communications Very active area of work

Summary
Wireless Network Classification Transmitters/Receivers Antennas Frequency Allocation Propagation Modes Noise characteristics Signal Encoding Error Detection and Correction

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