Wireless Networks
Wireless LANs
Wireless MANs
Wireless WANs
Personal Area Networks Example1: Bluetooth 1 Mbps, 10 Meters Other examples: wireless sensor networks, UWB
Business LANs
Cellular Networks
Satellite Systems
Paging Networks
Example1: GSM, 9.6 Kbps, wide coverage Example2: 3G, 2 Mbps, wide coverage
3000 GHz 300 GHz 30GHz 3GHz 300 MHz 30 MHz 3MHz
Infrared
100 mm
1m 10 m 100 m
Micro Waves
1 Km
10 Km 100 Km
MF - medium frequency
LF - low frequency VLF - very low frequency
300KHz
30Khz 3KHz
Radio Waves
Frequency Regulations
Frequencies from 9KHz to 300 MHZ in high demand (especially VHF: 30-300MHZ) In wireless, lower frequencies (omnidirectional) Two unlicensed bands in the US (counterparts elsewhere)
Industrial, Science, and Medicine (ISM): 2.4 GHz Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNII): 5.2 GHz
Regional, national, and international issues Procedures for military, emergency, air traffic control, etc Different agencies license and regulate
www.fcc.gov - US www.open.gov.uk/radiocom -- for UK Others (e.g., ETSI, five agencies in Japan)
http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.html; and printed copies of this chart are available from the U.S. Government Printing Office (ph: 202 512 1800; stock #: 003-000-00652-2 cost is: $6.00
Cell 1
Cell 2
HLR
VLR
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) HLR = Home Location Register VLR = Visitor Location Register
Wired connection
Table 5-4
Wireless Transmission
Antenna
Transmitter Antenna Receiver
In some cases, transmitters and receivers are on same device, called transceivers (e.g., cellular phones)
Transmitters
Amplifier Mixer Oscilator Filter Amplifier Transmitter
Antenna
Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz and the original source generates a signal at 300 MHZ. Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal Oscilator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz Mixer - combines original signal with oscilator and produces 900 MHz (does modulation, etc) Filter - selects correct frequency (required by FCC) Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending it (higher f in some cases)
Antennas
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors to send/receive RF signals
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and reception
Radiation Patterns
Radiation pattern
Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
Reception pattern
Receiving antennas equivalent to radiation pattern
Dipole antennas
Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna) Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)
Basic idea: propagate signals to follow objects as they move around and minimize noise. Mixture of:
Switched beam systems: a number of fixed beams at an antenna site the beam with least interference and best signal strength is chosen. Adaptive antennas: array of antennas that can adjust patterns based on noise, interference, and location of objects
Smart Antennas
Great deal of activity Liberti, J. and Rappaport, T., Smart Antennas for Wireless Communications, Prentice Hall
Smart Antennas
user
Interferer Interferer
a) Coverage Pattern (Top View) for a Switched Beam Antenna with 4 Elements
Interferer
b) Coverage Pattern (Top View) for an Adaptive Antenna giving Preferential treatment for the User and minimizing the Interferers
Applications
Long haul telecommunications service (instead of fiber, coax) -- requires less repeaters but line of sight Short point-to-point links between buildings (e.g, closed circuit TV, LANs, bypass local telephone companies) Most common BW= 4GHZ (can give up to 200 Mbps)
Microwave relay station Used to link two or more ground-based microwave transmitter/receivers Receives transmissions on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies or repeats the signal, and transmits it on another frequency (downlink)
Applications
Television distribution (e.g., PBS uses satellite exclusively) Long-distance telephone transmission between telephone exchange offices Private business networks (lease channels, expensive)
Applications
Broadcast radio
VHF and part of the UHF band; 30 MHZ to 1GHz Covers FM radio and UHF and VHF television
Infrared
does not penetrate walls used in remote control devices
Propagation Modes
Signal Transmission Antenna a) Ground Wave Propagation Earth Ionosphere Receiving Antenna
Table 5-5
Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over transmission medium Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion
Categories of Noise
Thermal Noise Intermodulation noise Crosstalk Impulse Noise
Multipath Propagation
R S
The digital signal consists of block of n bits, where each n-bit number is the amplitude of a PCM pulse
8000 samples per second, 8 bits for levels (256)
Amplitude
Samples This shows 12 samples, each sample represents the amplitude of the wave. These samples as sent as digital data and then reconstructed into the original signal on the receiving side.
Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by staircase function
Moves up or down by one quantization level () at each sampling interval
The bit stream approximates derivative of analog signal (rather than amplitude)
1 is generated if function goes up 0 otherwise
Delta Modulation
Analog Signal Signal Amplitude Staircase Function
Time
Session2
Session1 Time
Time Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) All sessions based on a code Time PCM, PSK (6 ms frames) Used by AT&T wireless, Bellsouth, Ericsson
TDMA:
available since 1992 each subscriber transmits at different times 6 millisecond frames, each divided into 1 ms time slots each time slot has a header and data errors may corrupt headers and cause time slots and in some cases the whole frame is lost TIA standard IS-54 defines the TDMA interface between a mobile station and cell-site radio (uses PCM for speech encoding, DQPSK for modulation) Call quality is similar to FDMA but can handle more calls (AT&T) Several extensions of TDMA (can support 15 users per voice channel)
CDMA
Based on spread spectrum - direct sequencing is more prevalent (TIA IS-95) Groups of bits from digitized speech are tagged with a unique code that is associated with a cellular call. Several cellular calls are combined and transmitted over 1.25MHz and then reassembled on the receiver side Receiver detects a signal by tuning to correct phase position between incoming and locally generated signals from code Speech coder operates at a variable rate (fully when user is talking) Adjusts for near-far power adjustments (nearer stations generate less powerful signals) When powered on, the mobile system knows the CDMA frequency, so it tunes to that frequency and searches for a pilot signal (pilot signals represent base stations) Mobile station will pick the strongest pilot and register When moving from cell to cell, new pilot is picked up
Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum
Input is fed into a channel encoder
Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth
Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of signal to be transmitted On receiving end, digit sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum signal Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover data
Data Bits
Frequency f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8
One technique combines digital information stream with the spreading code bit stream using exclusive-OR
CDMA Example
If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
For a 1 bit, A sends code as chip pattern
<c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>
Su d d1 c1 d 2 c 2 d 3 c3 d 4 c 4 d 5 c5 d 6 c6
CDMA Example
Receiver
Separates incoming frame into data bits and check bits Calculates check bits from received data bits Compares calculated check bits against received check bits Detected error occurs if mismatch
Hamming distance for 2 n-bit binary sequences, the number of different bits
E.g., v1=011011; v2=110001; d(v1, v2)=3
For each data block, create a codeword Send the codeword If the code is invalid, look for data with shortest hamming distance (possibly correct code) Datablock (k=2) Codeword (n=5) 00 00000 01 00111 10 11001 11 11110 Suppose you receive codeword 00100 (error) Closest is 00000 (only one bit different)
Turbo Codes
Good block error correction requires large codewords Large codewords are complex to process and waste bandwidth Turbo codes break the codewords into two
Two encoders on transmitters Two decoders on receivers
Shown to be very efficient Main limitation: decoding is complex and introduces delays Many applications in deep space communications Very active area of work
Summary
Wireless Network Classification Transmitters/Receivers Antennas Frequency Allocation Propagation Modes Noise characteristics Signal Encoding Error Detection and Correction