Berg Tymoczko Stryer

Biochemistry
Seventh Edition

Chapter 21: Glycogen Metabolism

Copyright 2007 by W. H. Freeman and Company

Glycogen Metabolism

OUTLINE
Glycogen breakdown requires the interplay of several enzymes Phosphorylase is regulated by allosteric interactions and reversible phosphorylation Epinephrine and glucagon signal the need for glycogen breakdown Glycogen is synthesized and degraded by different pathways Glycogen breakdown and synthesis are reciprocally regulated

Glycogen synthesis: glycogenesis

Degradation of glycogen: glycogenolysis.

Glycogen

Glycogen is a highly branched, very large polymer of glyc mols linked 1 4 Branches arise by 1 6 at about every 8-10th residue It is found in the cytosol. It is the storage form of Glc. Liver and muscle are the major sites for the storage of glycogen.

At the core: glycogenin

Surface: nonreducing ends

Degradation: takes place at the surface!

Degradation of Glycogen

Is not a simple reversal of the synthetic pathway Other enzymes involved Glycogen G-1-P Shortening of chains: Glycogen phosphorylase (-1 4) It is an exoglucosidase Degrades the gly. chains at their non-reducing ends until four glucosyl units remain on each chain before the branch point The resulting structure a limit dextrin Phosphorylase cannot degrade this any further!

Degradation of Glycogen continued

Removal of branches:

Branches are removed through two enzymatic activities of the debranching enzyme
a. b. Glucosyl 4:4 transferase removes the outer 3 of 4 glucosyl residues Single glucose residue attached in an 16 linkage is then removed by the -amylo (1:6) glucosidase activity of the debranching enzyme, releasing free glucose

Regulation phosphorylase
Regulation of glycogen metabolism is different in muscle and liver.

In muscle, the end served by glycolysis is ATP production and the rate of glycolysis increases as muscle works more, demanding more ATP. The liver has a different role in whole-body metabolism and glucose metabolism in the liver is different. The liver makes sure that glucose level is constant in the blood, producing and exporting Glc.

Regulation of Glycogen Breakdown

Glycogen represents the most immediately available large-scale source of metabolic energy. Therefore, it is important that animals be able to activate glycogen mobilization very rapidly. Glycogen breakdown is an hormone-controlled process. Structure of glycogen phosphorylase: Dimer; exists in two forms.
Active phosphorylase a Inactive phosphorylase b

Activation by phosphorylase kinase Deactivation phosphorylase phosphatase

Control of phosphorylase activity: Phosphorylase kinase is activated by c-AMP protein kinase

Muscle phosphorylase

In muscle, phosphorylase has 2 forms. 1. Phosphorylase a:

active form

2 subunits, in each Ser residue at position 14 is Plated (Phosphorylase kinase does this)
2.

Phosphorylase b:
inactive form in resting muscle, all enzyme is its inactive form

structurally identical except that Ser residues are not Plated. It is active when AMP is high! It is inactive when ATP and Glc 6-P are high! So, muscle phosphorylase b is active only when the energy charge of the muscle is low.

The rate of glycogen breakdown is due to the a/b which is controlled by hormones especially by epinephrine.
Phosphorylase a phosphorylase b by dephosphorylation catalyzed by phosphorylase a phosphatase.

Muscle phosphorylase

Muscle phosphorylase regulation

Both phosphorylase b and phosphorylase a exist as equilibria between an active R state and a less active T state. Phosphorylase b is usually inactive because the equilibrium favors the T state.
Phosphorylase a is usually active because the equilibrium favors the R state.

AMP dependency of phosphorylase b

Phosphorylase a is AMP-independent Phosphorylase b is AMP-dependent.

The stimulation of phosphorylase b by AMP can be prevented by high ATP concentrations.
AMP binds its allosteric site and stabilizes the conformation of phosphyrylase b in the R state. ATP acts as a negative allosteric modulator by competing with AMP and so favors the T state.

Intensive exercise AMP/ATP goes up, Phosphorylase b (active) In resting muscle AMP/ATP goes down, Phosphorylase b (inactive)

Exercise will also result in hormone release (epinephrine) that generates the phosphorylated a form of the enzyme.

Liver phosphorylase

Liver phosphorylase and muscle phosphorylase are 90% identical in amino acid sequence. Liver phosphorylase a, but not b, has the most responsive T-to-R transition. The binding of Glc shifts the allosteric equilibrium of the a form from the R to the T state, deactivating the enzyme. Why would Glc function as a negative regulator of liver phosphorylase a?
When there is plenty of Glc, no need to breakdown liver glycogen!

Liver Glycogen phosphorylase is regulated by hormones and blood glucose.

Liver glycogen has a different role in our system.

When blood glucose is low (lower than 4-5 mM) Glycogen Glc-1-P Glc-6-P Glc So, when blood glucose is low, glucose is released into the blood stream and carried to the needy tissues.

Glycogen phosphorylase of liver is under hormonal control.

Glucagon is the hormone. When glucose is low, glucagon is released. Liver phosphorylase is allosterically regulated by Glc not AMP.
When Glc is high in the blood, it enters hepatocytes and binds regulatory sites of the enzyme, causing conformational changes (favoring the T state). Therefore, glycogen phosphorylase is a glucose sensor. When Glc is high, it stops its own FORMATION.

Phosphorylase kinase is activated by phosphorylation and calcium ions

The phosphorylase enzyme.

Has a fully active form and an inactive form Has a mass of 1200 kd Consist of 4 subunits (bgd)
The subunit g is the source of catalytic activity. The other subunits are regulatory subunits.

Is under dual control 1. Regulated by phosphorylation

The b subunit is phosphorylated by cAMP dependent PKA).

2. Partly activated by calcium levels of the order of 1 mM.

The d subunit is calmodulin, a calsium sensor that stimulates many enzymes.

Phosphorylase kinase has the highest activity only after both the phosphorylation of the b subunit and the activation of the d subunit by Ca binding.

Epi and Glucagon signal the need for glycogen breakdown

PKA activates phosphorylase kinase Glycogen phosphorylase activated Glc 1-P is made What activates PKA?
HORMONES
Glucagon Epinephrine

Signal transduction
Epi GTP-bound G proteins Increased cAMP PKA increases

cAMP amplifies the effects of hormones

What shuts off glycogen breakdown?

This signal transduction pathway is shut down by the same pathway.

How?
GTP is deactivated by its inherent GTPase activity cAMP is converted to AMP (not a second messenger) by phosphodiesterase enzyme.

Steps in Glycogen Synthesis

A.

UDPG synthesis:
G-6-P G-1-P G-1-P + UTP UDPG + PPi

B.

A primer is required for glycogen synthesis:

1.

2.

A fragment of glycogen can serve as a primer in cells whose glycogen stores are not totally depleted. If a glycogen fragment is not present, glycogenin, a glycosyltransferase, serves as the primer.

Steps in Glycogen Synthesis continued

C.

Elongation of glycogen chains

Glucose is transferred from UDPG to the non-reducing end of the growing chain.
New glycosidic bond between C-1 of the activated sugar and C-4 of the accepting glucosyl residue Enzyme: glycogen synthase

If no other enzyme acts on the chain, the resulting structure is a linear molecule of glucosyl residues attached by 1-4.
Such a compound, called amylose, is found in fruits.

The UDP released when the new bond is made can be convert back. UDP + ATP UTP + ADP

Steps in Glycogen Synthesis continued

D.

Creating branches in glycogen:

Amylose unbranched Glygogen branches (~8)
The branches are made through the branching enzyme, glucosyl 4:6 transferase (amylo 1, 4 - 1,6 transglycosylase

This enzyme transfers 5 to 8 glucosyl residues from the nonreducing end to another residue by an 1,6 link. Further elongation Branches have two important functions
a) increases the solubility of the glycogen molecule. b) The number of non-reducing ends to which new glucosyl residues can be added and thereby greatly accelerating the rate at which glycongen synthesis and degradation can occur.

Initiation of Glycogenesis By Glycogenin

Summary of the synthesis

UDP-Glucose synthesis UDP-glucose phosphorylase A primer is required for glycogen synthesis (glycogenin or a fragment of glycogen) Glc units are added to the either the existing glycogen chains or glycogenin (enzyme glycogen synthase).
C-4 is the non-reducing end of glycogen chain. New glucose molecules are always added to this non-reducing terminus.

Elongation of glucose chains Creating branches in glycogen (enzyme transferase) Branches have 2 functions:
1. Increase the solubility of the glycogen molecule 2. Increase the rate of glycogen synthesis

How Is Glycogen Synthesis Regulated?

Glucagon and Epi promote glycogenolysis, at the same time they inhibit glycogen synthesis.

Both effects are mediated by cAMP and cAMP dependent protein kinase. Regulated enzyme: glycogen synthase
a form: active (not phosphorylated) b form: inactive (phosphorylated) PKA and other kinases phosphorylate the enzyme. Protein kinase (Ser phosphorylated)

Steps after the binding of the hormones:

Epi liver cell recep. Adenylate cyclase activity cAMP cAMP Pkinase which phosphorylates and inactivates glycogen synthase

Coordinate Control of Glycogen Breakdown and Synthesis by cAMP Cascades

Glycogen degradation Glycogen synthesis

Inactive forms are shown in red, active forms are shown in green.

Glycogen degradation

Inactive forms are shown in red, active forms are shown in green.

Glycogen synthesis

Inactive forms are shown in red, active forms are shown in green.

Breakdown and synthesis are reciprocally regulated

Hormone -triggered cAMP cascade acting through PKA Glycogen breakdown and synthesis are reciprocally regulated.
Phosphorylase kinase also inactivates glycogen synthase.

PP1(protein phosphatase 1) reverses the regulatory effects of glycogen metabolism.

PKA action is reversed by phosphatases PP1 inactivates phosphorylase kinase and phosphorylase a by dephosphorylating these enzymes. PP1 also removes P groups from the glycogen synthase b to the glycogen synthase a form (more active)

PP1 has 3 components:

P1 Rgl I

How is phosphatase activity of PP1 regulated?

Rgl phosphorylation by PKA prevents its binding to PP1, therefore activation of cAMP cascade leads to the inactivation of PP1 because it cannot bind to its substrate. Phosphorylation of inhibitor 1 by protein kinase A blocks catalysis by PP1.

Thus, Epi increases glycogen breakdown by making phosphorylase a and decreases glycogen synthesis by making inactive phosphatase.

Insulin stimulates glycogen synthesis by activating protein phosphatase 1

When blood glucose is high, insulin is stimulated. Activated insulin-sensitive protein kinase makes activated protein phosphatase

The consequent dephosphorylation of glycogen synthase, phosphorylase kinase, and phosphorylase promotes glycogen synthesis and blocks its degradation!

Phosphorylation of the enzymes is regulated by hormones

Phosphorylated groups can be removed by phosphatases; therefore, the action of phosphatases always opposes kinases.
If kinases activity is greater than activity of phosphatase, the enzyme is in the phosphorylated mode.

Insulin, Glucagon, and Epi are three important hormones which affect glycogen metabolism!

Glycogen metabolism in the liver regulates the blood-glucose level

After a carbohydrate-rich meal blood glucose increases. Insulin is the primary signal for glycogen synthesis. Blood glucose level 80-120 mg/dL (4.4-6.7 mM) The liver senses the concentration of blood glucose and either release or takes up glucose.

Glucose infusion changes the enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism

Glucose regulation of glycogen metabolism

Phosphorylase a is the glucose sensor in liver cells Glucose is high Binding of Glc converts R T PP1 is released Inactivation of glycogen breakdown and the activation of glycogen synthesis take place..

Glucose regulation of glycogen metabolism

[Glycogen breakdown inhibited]

[Glycogen synthesis favored]

Summary of the Regulation of Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation

Synthesis and degradation are regulated by the same hormonal signals!

An increase in insulin stimulates glycogen synthesis An increase in glucagon or Epi stimulates glycogen degradation cAMP production increases in response to the release ofEpi and glucogon cAMP production decreases in the presence of insulin!

Key enzymes are phophorylated by a family of kinases, some of which are cAMP dependent. Phosphorylation of an enzyme causes 3D change that affects the active site. It may either increase or decrease its activity depending on the type of enzyme.

Glycogen storage diseases

Glycogen metabolism is a finely controlled system.

It is not surprising that genetically determined enzyme deficiencies result in disease state. Genetic diseases are in fact valuable research tools for us.

There are 8 glycogen storage diseases but we will only cover Type I and Type V
Type I
Von Gierke Disease Glc 6-phosphatase is missing.

Type V
McArdle Disease Phosphorylase is missing.

Problem 31. Purified from two samples of human liver, glycogen was either treated or not treated With a-amylase and subsequently analyzed by SDS-PAGE and western blotting with Berg Tymoczko Stryer the use of antibodies to glycogenin. The results are presented in next slide. 1. Why are no proteins without amylase?

Glycogen is too large to enter the gel. Antibody to glycogenin was used so we only see Glycogenin by western blotting.

Biochemistry
Glygogen Metabolism

2. 3.

Seventh Edition What is the reason using amylase? Amylase degrades glycogen, releases glycogenin Why dont we see other proteins? 1. Antibody against glycogenin was used21 (glycogen P-lase, glycogen synthase, CHAPTER Protein phosphatase-1 can be seen if we used Abs for them)

Copyright 2012 by W. H. Freeman and Company

Problem for students. The gene for glycogenin was transfected into a cell line that normally stor small amounts of glycogen. The cells were then manipulated according to the following protocol, and glycogen was isolated and analyzed by SDS-PAGE and western blotting by using An antibody to glycogenin with and without amylase treatment. The results are presented in the Berg Tymoczko Stryer next slide. The protocol: Cells cultured in growth medium and 25 mM glucose (lane1) were Switched to medium containing no glucose for 24 hours (lane 2). Glucose-starved cells were refed with medium containing 25 mM glucose for 1 hour (lane 3) or 3 hours (lane 4). Samples (12 microg of protein) were either treated or not treated with amylase, before being loaded on the gel. a. Why did the western analysis produce a smear-that is, the high molecular-weight staining in lane 1(-)? Seventh Edition b. What is the significance of the decrease in HMW-staining in lane 2(-)? c. What is the significance of the difference between lanes 2(-) and 3(-)? d. Suggest a plausible reason why there is essentially no difference between lanes 3(-) and 4(-)? CHAPTER 21 e. Why are the bands at 66 kd the same in the lanes treated with amylase, despite the Glygogen Metabolism fact that the cells were treated differently?

Biochemistry

Copyright 2012 by W. H. Freeman and Company