Taylor’s Theorem: Suppose that

a function f(z) is analytic

throughout a disk z − z0 < R0
centered at z0 and with radius R0.
Then f(z) has the power series
representation
 ∞
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − z 0 ) , n
( z − z0 < R0 )
n= 0

where

an =
f ( n)
( z0 ) (n = 0,1, 2.....)
n!
 Maclaurin Series
Taylor Series about the point
z 0 = 0 is called Maclaurin
series, i. e.
∞ (n)
f ( 0) n
f ( z) = ∑ z , ( z < R0 )
n =0 n!
 Examples:
∞ n
z
1. e = ∑ , ( z < ∞)
z

n= 0 n !
∞ 2 n +1
z
2. sin z = ∑ (− 1) n
,
n= 0 ( 2 n + 1)!
( z < ∞)
 ∞ 2n
z
3. cos z = ∑ (− 1) n
,
n= 0 ( 2 n )!
( z < ∞)
∞ 2 n +1
z
4. sinh z = ∑ ,
n = 0 ( 2n + 1)!

( z < ∞)
 ∞ 2n
z
5. cosh z = ∑ ,
n= 0 ( 2 n )!
( z < ∞)
∞
1
6. =∑z , n
( z < 1)
1 − z n= 0
 ∞
1
7. = ∑ (− 1) z ,
n n
1 + z n= 0
( z < 1)
Laurent’s Theorem: Suppose
that a function f(z) is analytic
throughout an annular domain
R1 < z − z0 < R2 centered at z and
0
let C denote any positively
oriented simple closed contour
around z0 and lying in that
domain.
Then, at each point in domain f(z)
has the series representation

∞ ∞
bn
f ( z ) = ∑ an ( z − z 0 ) +∑
n

n =0 ( z − z0 )
n
n =0

(R < z − z
1 0 < R2 )
where
 1 f ( z ) dz
an = ∫
2π i C ( z − z0 ) n +1
( n = 0, 1, 2.....)

and
1 f ( z ) dz
bn = ∫
2π i C ( z − z0 ) − n +1
( n = 0, 1, 2,...)
Example:
Find the Laurent series
representation of
z
f ( z) =
( z − 1)( z − 3)
when
(a) D1 : 0 < z < 1,
(b) D 2 : 1 < z < 3,
(c) D3 : 3 < z < ∞,
We have
z
f(z) =
(z − 1)(z − 3)
1 3
=− +
2( z − 1) 2( z − 3)
(a) Consider the domain
D1 : 0 < z < 1.

Then f(z) is analytic in D1.

 1 3
f(z) = − +
2( z −1) 2( z − 3)
1 3
= −
2(1 − z ) 2 × 3(1 − z )
3
∞ ∞ n
1 1 z
= ∑ z − ∑ 
n
2 n =0 2 n =0  3 
 ∞ ∞ n
1 n 1  z
⇒ f(z) = ∑ z − ∑  
2 n= 0 2 n= 0  3 

∞
1  1 n
= ∑ 1− n  z
2 n= 0  3 
(b) Consider the domain
D 2 : 1 < z < 3.

Then f(z) is analytic in D 2 .

 1 3
f(z) = − +
2( z − 1) 2( z − 3)
1 3
=− −
1 z
2 z (1 − ) 2 × 3(1 − )
z 3
∞ n ∞ n
1 1 1  z
= − ∑  − ∑ 
2 z n =0  z  2 n =0  3 
 ∞ ∞ n
1 1 1  z
⇒ f(z) = − ∑ n+1 − ∑  
2 n= 0 z 2 n= 0  3 
(c) Consider the domain
D 3 : 3 < z < ∞.
Then f(z) is analytic in D 3 .
Note that
1 3
< < 1.
z z
 1 3
f(z) = − +
2( z − 1) 2( z − 3)
1 3
=− +
1 3
2 z (1 − ) 2 × z (1 − )
z z
∞ n ∞ n
1 1 3  3
= − ∑  + ∑ 
2 z n =0  z  2 z n =0  z 
 ∞ n ∞ n
1  1 3  3
⇒ f(z) = − ∑   + ∑  
2 z n= 0  z  2 z n= 0  z 
∞ ∞ n +1
1 1 1 3
= − ∑ n +1 + ∑ n +1
2 n= 0 z 2 n= 0 z

( )
∞
1 n +1 1
= − ∑ 1− 3 n +1
.
2 n= 0 z
Excercise:
Show that, when 0 < z − 1 < 2,
the Laurent series representation
of
z
f ( z) =
( z − 1)( z − 3)
is
 ∞ n
( z − 1) 1
f ( z ) = − 3∑ n+ 1 − .
n= 0 2 2 ( z − 1)
 RESIDUE
(1) Consider a function f(z) &
1
let z = . Then
w
1
f ( z ) = f   = g ( w)
w
(i ) f(z) is said to be analytic at
infinity if g(w) is analytic
at w = 0.

(ii) f(z) is said to be singular at

infinity if g(w) is singular
at w = 0.
(2) Zero of an analytic function :

Let f(z) is analytic in a domain D.

If f(z 0 ) = 0 for some z = z 0 , then

z = z 0 is called zero of f(z).
If f(z 0 ) = f ′( z0 ) = f ′′( z0 ) = ....
= f ( n −1)
( z0 ) = 0, but
(n)
f ( z0 ) ≠ 0, then z = z0 is
called ZERO OF ORDER n
of f ( z ).
i.e. z = z0 is called zero
of order n of f(z) if
n
f ( z ) = ( z − z0 ) g ( z ),
where g ( z0 ) ≠ 0.
(3)Singular Point of a fn f(z) :

(i) If a function f(z) fails to be

analytic at a point z 0 , but it
is analytic at some point in
every nbd of z 0 , then z 0 is
called Singular Point of f(z).
(ii) Isolated Singularity

The point z 0 is called an isolated

singularity of f(z) if
(a) z 0 is a singular point of f(z)
(b) f(z) is analytic in a deleted nbd
N : 0 < z - z 0 <∈ .
(4) (i) Let z 0 is an isolated
singularity of f(z)

⇒ ∃ R > 0 such that f(z) is

analytic in 0 < z − z0 < R.
Hence f(z) has Laurent series
expansion :

∞ ∞
f(z) = ∑ an ( z − z0 ) + ∑ bn ( z − z0 ) ,
n −n

n= 0 n= 0

0 < z − z0 < R
 1 f ( z ) dz
where an = ∫
2πi c ( z − z0 ) n +1
,

1 f ( z ) dz
bn = ∫
2πi c ( z − z0 ) −n +1
,

C is any positively oriented

simple closed contour around z 0
and lying in the puctured disc
0 < z - z 0 < R.
 ∞
(ii ) ∑bn ( z − z0 )
−n
is called
n =1
principal part (PP) of the Laurent
series, i.e.
∞
PP = ∑bn ( z − z0 )
−n

n =1
b1 b2
= + + .......
z − z0 ( z − z0 ) 2
If b k ≠ 0, for some k, say k = m,
and b n = 0 ∀ n > m, then

b1 b2 bm
PP = + + ... +
z - z 0 ( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 ) m
Then the singularity z = z 0 of
f(z) is called POLE OF ORDER m.

If m = 1, then z 0 is a pole of order 1

and is called a SIMPLE POLE.
(iii) If an analytic function f(z)
has a singularity other than a
pole, then this singularity is
known as ESSENTIAL
SINGULARITY of f(z) , i.e.
if bn ≠ 0 for infinitely many n,

then the singularity z 0 is called

ESSENTIAL SINGULARITY
of f(z).
(iv) If b n = 0 ∀n,

then the singularity z 0 is called

REMOVABLE SINGULARITY
of f(z).
RESIDUE :
The PP of the Laurent series is
given by
∞
PP = ∑bn ( z − z0 )
−n
, where
n =1
1 f ( z )dz
bn = ∫
2π i C ( z − z0 ) −n +1
If n =1, then
1
b1 =
2πi ∫ f ( z ) dz
c

is called RESIDUE of f(z)

at z = z 0 , and we write
b1 = Re s f ( z )
z = z0

1
= coeff of
z − z0
Residue Theorem :
Let C be a positively oriented
simple closed contour. Suppose
that f(z) is analytic within and on
C except for a finite number of
singular points z k (k = 1, 2,....n)
inside C.
Then
n
 
∫ f ( z )dz = 2π i ∑  Re s f ( z ) 
C k =1  z = zk 
How to find residue of a given fn f(z) :
sin z
Ex1 : Let f(z) = 4 , 0 < z < ∞.
z
1
Now f(z) = 4 ( sin z )
z
1  z 3
z 5
z 7 
= 4  z − + − + ....
z  (3)! (5)! (7)! 
 1 1 1 1 1 3
f ( z) = 3 − . + .z − z + ....
z (3)! z (5)! (7)!
0< z <∞

1 1 1
PP = − . + 3
(3)! z z
Note that z = 0 is a pole of
order ???
Hence
1 1
Res f ( z ) = b1 = coeff of = −
z =0 z 6
sin z
∴ ∫ 4
dz = 2πi Res f ( z )
c: z =1
z z =0

πi
=−
3
Ex 2. Find the residue of
f ( z ) = exp(1 / z ), and hence
evaluate

∫ f(z)dz, C : z = 1.
c
Soln :
 1
f ( z ) = exp  
 z
1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + 2
+ 3
+ .....
z 2! z 3! z
Note : z = 0 is an essential
singularity of f(z).
1
⇒ b1 = coeff of
z
= Re s f ( z )
z =0
=1
Hence

∫ f(z)dz = 2πi.
c
Ex 3. Find the residue of
2
f ( z ) = exp(1 / z ), and
hence evaluate

∫ f(z)dz, C : z = 1.
c
 Hints:
1. z = 0 is an essential
singularity of f(z).
2. b1 = Re s f ( z ) = 0.
z =0
3. I = 0.
How to find the residues ?

We have
∞ ∞
f(z) = ∑ an ( z − z0 ) + ∑ bn ( z − z0 )
n −n

n= 0 n =1
Case IA : Let z = z 0 is a simple
pole of f(z). Then
∞
b1
f(z) = ∑ an ( z − z0 )
n
+
n =0 z − z0
⇒ ( z − z0 ) f ( z )
∞
= b1 + ( z − z0 ) ∑ an ( z − z0 )
n

n= 0
⇒ lim ( z − z0 ) f ( z ) = b1
z → z0

= Re s f ( z )
z = z0
CaseIB : Let f(z) has a simple pole
at z = z 0 and f(z) is of the form
p( z )
f ( z) = ,
q( z )
where
(i) p(z) & q(z) are analytic
at z = z 0 ,
(ii) p(z 0 ) ≠ 0, and
(iii ) q( z ) has a simple zero
at z = z 0 ,
Then
p( z )
Re s f ( z ) = Re s
z = z0 z = z0 q ( z )

p ( z0 )
=
q′( z0 )
CaseII : Let z 0 be a pole of order m > 1
for the function f(z).
∞
Then f(z) = ∑ an ( z − z0 )
n

n =0
b1 b2 bm
+ + + .... +
( z − z0 ) ( z − z0 ) 2
( z − z0 ) m
⇒ ( z − z0 ) f ( z)
m

∞
= ( z − z0 ) m
∑ an ( z − z 0 ) n

n=0

+ b1 ( z − z0 ) + b2 ( z − z0 )
m −1 m− 2

+ ..... + bm−1 ( z − z0 ) + bm
Let φ (z) = (z - z 0 ) m
f ( z)
then
Res
z =z 0 f ( z ) = b1
m −1
= coeff . of (z - z 0 ) in the
expansion of φ (z)

=
φ (m −1)
( z0 ) by Taylor's Thm
(m −1)!
Thus if z 0 is a pole of order m > 1
of f(z), then
( m −1)
Res φ ( z0 )
z = z0 f ( z) =
(m − 1)!

=
1
(m − 1)!
lim
z → z0 φ[m −1
( z ) ]
Res
z = z0 f ( z)

1 lim  d m− 1 
= z → z0  m − 1 ( z − z 0 ) m
f ( z ) 
(m − 1)!  dz 
Ex1.
Find the residue of f(z) at
z = 0 and z = − 1, where
1
f(z) = 2
.
z+z
Soln :
Note that
z = 0 and z = − 1
are simple poles of f(z).
∴ Res
z= 0 f lim
( z ) = z→ 0 ( z − 0) f ( z )

lim  1 
= z→ 0   =1
 1+ z 
∴ Res
z = −1 f lim
( z ) = z→ 0 ( z + 1) f ( z )

lim  1
= z → −1   = − 1.
 z
 −z
e
Q.2 (a) Evaluate I = ∫ 2
dz .
c: z =3 z
Soln :
Clearly, z = 0 is a pole of order 2
−z
e
of f ( z) = 2 .
z
Now
I = ∫ f ( z )dz
c: z =3

= 2πi ∑ Re s f ( z ),
z = zk
−z
e
f ( z) = 2
z
∴ Re s
z= 0 f ( z) =
1 lim  d 2
(2 − 1)!
( )
. z→ 0  z f ( z) 
 dz 

lim  d −z
= z→ 0  e 
 dz 
⇒ Re s
z=0 f ( z) = lim
z→ 0 (− e )
−z

= −1

∴ I = − 2π i
Q.2 (b) Evaluate
−z
e
I= ∫ 2
dz .
c: z −3 =1
z

Ans : I = 0 (WHY ???)

Ex2(c). Evaluate
−z
e dz
I= ∫ ( z −1) 2
.
c: z =3

So ln :
z = 1 is pole of order 2 of
−z
e
f ( z) = 2
.
( z −1)
 Res
∴ z =1 f ( z) =
dz
( )
d −z
e z =1

−z 1
= −e z =1 =−
e

2πi
∴I = −
e
 1

∫
2
(c ) I = z .e z dz
z =3
1
2 z
Let f(z) =z e
⇒ z = 0 is an essential
singularity of f(z)
 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 
f ( z ) = z  1 + + . 2 + . 3 + 4 + ...
 z 2! z 3! z 4! z 
2 1 1 1 1 1
= z + z + + . + . 2 + ....
2! 3! z 4! z
 Re s 1 1
∴ f ( z ) = coeff . of =
z=0 z 6

1 πi
∴ I = 2π i × =
6 3
(d )
z +1
I= ∫ 2 dz
z =3
z − 2 z
z +1 z +1
Let f(z) = 2 =
z − 2 z z ( z − 2)
⇒ z = 0 & z = 2 are simple poles
Re s
f ( z ) = lim z f ( z )
z =0 z →0

z +1
= lim
z →0 z − 2

1
=−
2
 lim
Re s f ( z ) = ( z − 2) f ( z )
z =2 z →2
3
=
2
∴ I = 2π i ∑ Re s f ( z )
 1 3
= 2πi − +  = 2πi.
 2 2
Q.3, p.233
Let f ( z ) be analytic at z 0 ,
and consider
f ( z)
g ( z) = .
z − z0
Then Show that
(a ) If f(z 0 ) ≠ 0,
then z0 is a simple pole
of g(z) and

Re s g(z) = f(z 0 )
z =z0
(b) If f(z 0 ) = 0,
then z0 is a
removable singularity of g(z)

and Re s g(z) = 0.
z = z0
Sol : f(z) is analytic at z 0

⇒ f(z) has Taylor's series

expansion about z 0 , &
f ( z ) = f(z 0 ) + ( z − z0 ) f ′( z0 )
2 f ′′ ( z0 )
+ ( z − z0 )
2!
3 f ′′′( z0 )
+ ( z − z0 ) + ...
3!
 f ( z)
⇒g ( z ) =
z − z0
f ( z0 )
= + f ′( z0 )
z − z0
f ′′( z0 )
+ ( z − z0 )
2!
2 f ′′′( z 0 )
+ ( z − z0 ) +...
3!
(a) Clearly if f ( z0 ) ≠ 0, Then
principal part (P.P) of
g(z) is
f ( z0 )
=
z − z0
∴ z0 is a simple pole of g(z)
and
1
Res g ( z ) = b1 = coeff of
z = z0 z − z0
= f ( z0 )
(b) If f ( z0 ) = 0, then p.p.of g(z)
is 0
⇒ bn = 0 ∀ n
⇒ z = z0 is a removable
singularity of g(z), and
Res
z = z0 g ( z) = 0
 3
3z + 2
Q.4 (a) I = ∫ − =
c
( z − 1(
) z 2
+ )
9
, c : z 2 2

3
3z + 2
Let f ( z ) =
(
( z − 1) z + 9
2
)
Then 1, 3i, − 3i are simple poles of f(z)
 2i

2 4
-2i
Note : z = 1 is only inside C
Res  3z + 2 
3
∴ f ( z) =  2  z =1
z =1  z +9 
5 1
= =
10 2
∴ I = 2πi ×z =1 f ( z ) = πi
Re s
(b) c : z = 4
Then 1,3i ,−3i are all inside C
1
∴ z =1 f ( z ) =
Re s 4i

2 3i

1
-4 4

3i
 3
Re s 3z + 2
f ( z) =
z =3i
( z − 1)( z + 3i ) z =3i

− 81i + 2
=
( 3i − 1)( 6i )
2 − 81i
=
− 18 − 6i
 3
3z + 2
Re s f ( z ) =
z =−3i ( z − 1)( z − 3i ) z =−3i

+ 81i + 2
=
( − 3i − 1)( − 6i )
2 + 81i
=
− 18 + 6i
∴ ∑ Res f ( z )
1 2 + 81i 2 − 81i
= + −
2 6i − 18 6i + 18
=3
∴ I = 2π i ∑ Res f ( z ) = 6π i
 dz
Q.5 (b) I = ∫ 3 ,c : z + 2 = 3
c z ( z + 4 )
1
Let f ( z) = 3
z ( z + 4)

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1
⇒ z = 0 is a pole of
order 3 and
z = −4 is a simple pole
& both lie inside C.
 2
Re s 1 d  1 
∴ f ( z) = . 2  
z=0 2 dz  z + 4  z= 0
1
= 3
4
 Re s 1 1
f (z ) = 3 z = −4 =− 3
z = −4 z 4
 1 1
∴I = 2πi 3 − 3  = 0
4 4 