1

FUNDAMENTALS OF
FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 2 Fluids at Rest
- Pressure and its Effect
2
MAIN TOPICS
Pressure at a Point
Basic Equation for Pressure Field
Pressure variation in a Fluid at Rest
Standard Atmosphere
Measurement of Pressure
Manometry
Mechanical and Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface
Pressure Prism
Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface
Buoyancy, Floating, and Stability
Rigid-Body Motion
3
Pressure at a Point
1/4
Pressure ?
Indicating the normal force per unit area at a given point
acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest.
How the pressure at a point varies with the orientation of
the plane passing through the point ?
4
Pressure at a Point
2/4
Consider the free-body diagram within a fluid mass.
In which there are no shearing stress, the only external
forces acting on the wedge are due to the pressure and the
weight.
5
Pressure at a Point
3/4
The equation of motion (Newtons second law, F=ma) in
the y and z direction are,
z S z Z
y S y y
a
2
xyz

2
xyz
- xscos P xy P F
a
2
xyz
xssin P xz P F
=

=
=

=
( )
2
y
a P P
2
z
a P P
y S y Z S Z
= + =
u o o u o o sin s z cos s y = =
x=0y=0z=0
S y Z
P P P = =
6
Pressure at a Point
4/4
The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is
independent of the direction as long as there are no
shearing stresses present.
The result is known as Pascals law named in honor of
Blaise Pascal (1623-1662).
7
Basic Equation for Pressure Field
To obtain an basic equation for pressure field in a static
fluid.
Apply Newtons second law to a differential fluid mass

= a m F
There are two types of
forces acting on the mass
of fluid: surface force and
body force.

V m o = o
8
Body Force on Element
V g m g F
B
o = o = o

k z y x k F
B

o o o = o
V m o = o
Where is the density.
g is the local
gravitational acceleration.

9
Surface Forces
1/4
No shear stresses, the only
surface force is the
pressure force.
10
Surface Forces
2/4
The pressure at the left face


The pressure at the right face


The pressure force in y
direction

xyz
y
p
xz
2
dy
y
p
p xz
2
dy
y
p
p Fy
c
c
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
( )
2
dy
y
p
p
2
dy
y
p
p y y
y
p
p p
L L
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|

c
c
+ =
c
c
+ =
( )
2
dy
y
p
p
2
dy
y
p
p y y
y
p
p p
R R
c
c
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ =
c
c
+ =
11
Surface Forces
3/4
The pressure force in x direction


The pressure force in z direction

xyz
x
p
yz
2
dx
x
p
p yz
2
dx
x
p
p Fx
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
xyz
z
p
xy
2
dz
z
p
p xy
2
dz
z
p
p Fz
c
c
=
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
12
Surface Forces
4/4
The net surface forces acting on the element

xyz k
z
p
j
y
p
i
x
p
k F j F i F F
Z Y X
s
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= + + =
k
z
p
j
y
p
i
x
p
p gradp

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V =
xyz p xyz) ( gradp F s V = =
13
General Equation of Motion
z y x a k z y x z y x p o o o o o o o o o

= V
V d ) g p (
z y x ) g p ( F F F
B S

+ V =
o o o + V = o + o = o
a k p

= V
The general equation of motion for a fluid
in which there are no shearing stresses
14
Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest

For a fluid at rest a=0
0 a k p = = V

direction z ... 0 g
z
p
direction y ... 0 g
y
p
direction x ... 0 g
x
p
z
y
x
= +
c
c

= +
c
c

= +
c
c

=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
z
P
0
y
P
0
x
P
g g
, 0 g , 0 g
z
y x
=
= =
= = g
dz
dp
15
Pressure-Height Relation
The basic pressure-height relation of static fluid :



Restriction:
Static fluid.
Gravity is the only body force.
The z axis is vertical and upward.
Integrated to determine the
pressure distribution in a
static fluid with appropriate
boundary conditions.
How the specific weight varies with z?
= = g
dz
dp
16
Pressure in Incompressible Fluid
A fluid with constant density is called an incompressible
fluid.




} }
=
1
2
2
1
z
z
p
p
dz dp
p1 p2 = (z2z1)=h
p1=h +p2

h= z2z1h is the depth of fluid
measured downward from the
location of p2.
This type of pressure distribution is
called a hydrostatic distribution.
= = g
dz
dp
17
Pressure Head in Static Fluid
1/2
The pressure difference between two points in a fluid at
rest: p1 p2 = (z2z1)=h

=
2 1
p p
h
h is called the pressure head
and is interpreted as the
height of a column of fluid of
specific weight required to
give a pressure difference p1-
p2.
18
Pressure Head in Static Fluid
2/2
The pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is
given by p = h + po
The pressure in a homogeneous,
incompressible fluid at rest
depends on the depth of the fluid
relative to some reference plane,
and it is not influenced by the
size or shape of the tank or
container in which the fluid is
held.
19
Example 2.1 Pressure-Depth Relationship
Because of a leak in a buried gasoline storage tank, water has seeped
in to the depth shown in Figure E2.1. If the specific gravity of the
gasoline is SG=0.68. Determine the pressure at the gasoline-water
interface and at the bottom of the tank. Express the pressure in units
of lb/ft
2
, lb/in
2
, and as pressure head in feet of water.
Determine the pressure at the gasoline-
water interface and at the bottom of the
tank
20
Example 2.1 Solution
1/2
( )
2
0
0
3
0 O H 1
ft / lb p 721
p ) ft 17 )( ft / lb 4 . 62 )( 68 . 0 ( p h SG p
2
+ =
+ = + =

The pressure at the interface is
p
o
=0
ft 6 . 11
ft / lb 4 . 62
ft / lb 721 p
in / lb 01 . 5
ft / in 144
ft / lb 721
ft / lb 721 p
3
2
O H
1
2
2 2
2
2
1
2
= =

= = =
p
o
is the pressure at the free surface of the gasoline.
21
Example 2.1 Solution
2/2
ft 6 . 14
ft / lb 4 . 62
ft / lb 908 p
in / lb 31 . 6
ft / in 144
ft / lb 908
p
ft / lb 908 ft / lb 721 ) ft 3 )( ft / lb 4 . 62 ( p h p
3
2
O H
2
2
2 2
2
2
2 2 3
1 O H O H 2
2
2 2
= =

= =
= + = + =
The pressure at the tank bottom
22
Transmission of Fluid Pressure

The required equality of pressure at equal elevations
throughout a system is important for the operation of
hydraulic jacks, lifts, and presses, as well as hydraulic
controls on aircraft and other type of heavy machinery.
1
1
2
2 2 2 1 1
F
A
A
F pA F pA F = = =
The transmission of fluid
pressure throughout a stationary
fluid is the principle upon which
many hydraulic devices are
based.
23
Pressure In Compressible Fluid
1/2
For compressible fluid, =(P,T) , how to determine the
pressure variation?
The density must be expressed as a function of one of the
other variable in the equation.
For example: Determine the pressure variation in the ideal
gas.
RT
gp
dz
dp
RT p = =
} }
= =
1
2
2
1
z
z
1
2
p
p
T
dz
R
g
p
p
ln
p
dp
= = g
dz
dp
24
Pressure In Compressible Fluid
2/2
T=T0=constant
(

=
o
1 2
1 2
RT
) z z ( g
exp p p
T=Ta-z
R / g
a
a
R / g
a
a
a a
z
0
a
p
p
a
)
T
T
( p )
T
z
1 ( p p
)
T
z
1 ln(
R
g
p
p
ln
) z T ( R
gdz
p
dp
dz
) mz T ( R
pg
dz
RT
pg
gdz dp
a
| |
=
|
=
|

|
=
|
=

= = =
} }
P
a
is the absolute
pressure at z=0
25
Example 2.2 Incompressible and
Isothermal Pressure-Depth Variations
The Empire State Building in New York City, one of the tallest
building in the world, rises to a height of approximately 1250ft.
Estimate the ratio of the pressure at the top of the building to the
pressure at its base, assuming the air to be at a common temperature
of 59F. Compare this result with that obtained by assuming the air
to be incompressible with =0.0765fb/ft
3
at 14.7psi (abs).
26
Example 2.2 Solution
1/2
( )
( )
955 . 0
) ft / in 144 )( in / lb 7 . 14 (
) ft 1250 )( ft / lb 765 . 0 (
1
p
z z
1
p
p
or z z p p
2 2 2
3
1
1 2
1
2
1 2 1 2
= =

=
=
For isothermal conditions
For incompressible conditions
956 . 0
] R ) 460 59 )[( R slug / lb ft 1716 (
) ft 1250 )( s / ft 2 . 32 (
exp
RT
) z z ( g
exp
p
p
2
o
1 2
1
2
=
)
`

+
=
(

=
27
Example 2.2 Solution
2/2
Note that there is little difference between the two results. Since the
pressure difference between the bottom and top of the building is
small, it follows that the variation in fluid density is small and,
therefore, the compressible fluid and incompressible fluid analyses
yield essentially the same result.
By repeating the calculation, for various values of height, h, the
results shown in figure are obtained.
28
Standard Atmosphere
1/2
Standard atmosphere was first developed in the 1920s.
The currently accepted Standard atmosphere is based on a
report published in 1962 and updated in 1976.
The so-called U.S. standard atmosphere is an idealized
representation of middle-latitude, year-around mean
conditions of the earths atmosphere.

29
Standard Atmosphere
2/2
For example, in the troposphere,
the temperature variation is of
the form
T = Ta z
where Ta is the temperature at
sea level (z=0) and is the
lapse rate (the rate of change of
temperature with elevation).
|
(

|
=
R / g
a
a
T
z
1 p p
Pa is the absolute pressure at z=0.
30
Measurement of Pressure: Absolute and Gage
Absolute pressure: measured with respect to vacuum.
Gage pressure: measured with respect to atmospheric
pressure.
atmosphere absolute gage
p p p =
31
Barometers
Mercury Barometer is used to measure atmosphere
pressure:
Patmh +Pvaporh
Pvapor0.000023 lb / in
2
@68
o
F
specific weight of mercury
gh p p
vapor atm
=
The height of a mercury column is
converted to atmosphere pressure by
using
32
Example 2.3 Barometric Pressure
A mountain lake has an average temperature of 10 and
a maximum depth of 40 m. For a barometric pressure of
598 mm Hg, determine the absolute pressure (in pascals)
at the deepest part of the lake .
33
Example 2.3 Solution
1/2
m 598 . 0 mm 598
P
Hg
barometric
= =

0
p h p + =
3
Hg
m / kN 133 =
The pressure in the lake at any depth, h
p
0
is the local barometric expressed in a consistent of units .
2 3
0
m / kN 5 . 79 ) m / kN 133 )( m 598 . 0 ( p = =
34
3
0
/ 804 . 9
2
m kN
H
=
kPa 472 m / kN 5 . 79 m / kN 392
m / kN 5 . 79 ) m 40 )( m / kN 804 . 9 ( p
2 2
2 3
= + =
+ =
From Table B.2,
at 10
0
C
Example 2.3 Solution
2/2
35
Manometry
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the
use of liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes.
Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are
called manometers. The mercury barometer is an
example of one type of manometer, but there are many
other configuration possible, depending on the particular
application.
Piezometer Tube.
U-Tube manometer.
Inclined-Tube manometer.
36
Piezometer Tube
The fundamental equation is
P = P
0
+ h >> P
A
=
1
h
1

P
A
: gage pressure ( P
0
=0)

1
:the specific weight of the liquid in the
container
h
1
: measured from the meniscus at the upper
surface to point(1)
Only suitable if the pressure in the container is
greater than atmospheric pressure, and the
pressure to be measured must be relatively small so
the required height of the column is reasonable. The
fluid in the container must be a liquid rather than
a gas.
37
Simple U-Tube Manometer
The fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid.
A(1)(2)(3)Open
P
A
+
1
h
1

2
h
2
= 0
>> P
A
=
2
h
2

1
h
1

If pipe A contains a gas
then
1
h
1
0
>> P
A
=
2
h
2

38
Example 2.4 Simple U-Tube Manometer
A closed tank contains compressed
air and oil (SG
oil
= 0.90) as is
shown in Figure E2.4. A U-tube
manometer using mercury (SG
oil
=
13.6) is connected to the tank as
shown. For column heights h
1
= 36
in., h
2
= 6 in., and h
3
= 9 in.,
determine the pressure reading (in
psi) of the gage.

39
Example 2.4 Solution
1/2
2 2 1 oil air 1
p ) h h ( p p = + + =
As we move from level (2) to the open end, the pressure must
decrease by
Hg
h
3
, and at the open end the pressure is zero. Thus, the
manometer equation can be expressed as
0 h ) h h ( p h p p
3 Hg 2 1 oil air 3 Hg 2 1
= + + = =
or
0 h ) )( SG ( ) h h )( )( SG ( p
3 O H Hg 2 1 O H oil air
2 2
= + +
The pressure at level (1) is
40
Exmaple 2.4
2/2
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|
+
= t f
12
9
) lb/ft 4 . 62 )( 6 . 13 ( ft
12
6 36
) lb/ft 4 . 62 )( 9 . 0 ( p
3 3
air
2
air
lb/ft 440 p =
The value for p
air
So that
The pressure reading (in psi) of the gage
psi 06 . 3
/ft in. 144
lb/ft 440
p
2 2
2
gage
= =
41
Differential U-Tube Manometer
A(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)B
P
A

1
h
1

2
h
2

3
h
3
P
B

The pressure difference is
P
A
P
B

2
h
2

3
h
3

1
h
1

42
Example 2.5 U-Tube Manometer

As will be discussed in Chapter 3, the volume rate of flow, Q,
through a pipe can be determined by means of a flow nozzle located
in the pipes as illustrated in Figure. the nozzle creates a pressure
drop, p
A
p
B
, along the pipe which is related to the flow through
the equation , where K is a constant depending on the
pipe and nozzle size. The pressure drop is frequently measured with
a differential U-tube manometer of the type illustrated.
(a) Determine an equation for p
A
p
B
in terms of the specific
weight of the flowing fluid,
1
, the specific weight of the gage fluid,

2
, and the various heights indicated. (b) For
1
= 9.80kN/m
3
,
2
=
15.6 kN/m
3
, h
1
= 1.0m, and h
2
= 0.5m, what is the value of the
pressure drop, p
A
p
B
?
B A
p p K Q =
43
Example 2.5 Solution
(Ans)
we start at point A and move vertically upward to level (1), the
pressure will decrease by
1
h
1
and will be equal to pressure at (2)
and (3). We can now move from (3) to (4) where the pressure has
been further reduced by
2
h2 . The pressure at levels (4) and (5) are
equal, and as we move from (5) to B the pressure will increase
by
1
(h
1
+ h
2
)
) ( h p p
p ) h h ( h h p
2 1 2 B A
B 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 A
=
= + +
44
Inclined-Tube Manometer
To measure small pressure change, an inclined-tube
manometer is frequently used:
P
A
+
1
h
1

2
l
2
sin
3
h
3
= P
B

P
A
P
B
=
2
l
2
sin +
3
h
3

1
h
1

If pipe A and B contain a gas then
3
h
3

1
h
1
0
>> l
2
= ( P
A
P
B
) /
2
sin
45
Mechanical and Electronic Devices
Manometers are not well suited for measuring very high
pressures, or pressures that are changing rapidly with
time.
To overcome some of these problems numerous other
types of pressure-measuring instruments have been
developed. Most of these make use of the idea that when
a pressure acts on an elastic structure, the structure
will deform, and this deformation can be related to the
magnitude of the pressure.
46
Bourdon Pressure Gage
Bourdon tube pressure gage uses a hollow, elastic, and
curved tube to measure pressure.
As the pressure within the tube increases the tube tends to
straighten, and although the deformation is small, it can be
translated into the motion of a pointer on dial.
Connected to
the pressure
source
47
Aneroid Barometer
The Aneroid barometer is used for measuring atmospheric
pressure.
The Aneroid barometer contains a hallow, closed, elastic
elements which is evacuated so that the pressure inside the
element is near absolute zero.
As the external atmospheric pressure changes, the element
deflects, and this motion can be translated into the
movement of an attached dial.
48
Bourdon Gage + LVDT
Combining a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) with a
Bourdon pressure gage, converts the pressure into an electric output.
The core of the LVDT is connected
to the free end of the Bourdon so
that as a pressure is applied, the
resulting motion of the end of the
tube moves the core through the coil
and an output voltage develops.
This voltage is a linear function of
the pressure and could be recorded
on an oscillograph or digitized for
storage or processing on a computer.
49
Hydrostatic Forces on a Plane
1/2
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on
the surface due to the hydrostatic pressure distribution of
the fluid.
The determination of these forces is important in the
design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic
structures.
Pressure distribution and resultant
hydrostatic force on the bottom of an open
tank.
Pressure distribution on the ends of an
open tank.
50
Hydrostatic Forces on a Plane
2/2
Specifying the magnitude of the force.
Specifying the direction of the force.
Specifying the line of action of the force.
To determine completely the resultant force acting on a
submerged force.
51
On a Submerged Surfaces

The hydrostatic force on any
element of the surface acts
normal to the surface dF = pdA.
The resultant force




For constant and u
} }
u = =
A A
R
dA sin y hdA F
Where h=ysinu
}
u =
A
R
ydA sin F
A y ydA
C
A
=
}
First moment of the area wrt the x-axis >>>
x
y
52
Resultant Force

The magnitude of the resultant force is equal to pressure
acting at the centroid of the area multiplied by the total
area.
A h sin Ay F
c c R
= u =
yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the area A.
hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the
centroid of the area.
53
Location of Resultant Force
1/2
How to determine the location (xR,yR) of the resultant
force ?
} }
u = =
A
2
A
R R
dA y sin ydF y F
The moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of
the distributed pressure force.
A h sin Ay F
c c R
= u =
c
c
xc
c
x
c
A
2
R
y
A y
I
A y
I
A y
dA y
y + = = =
}
Ix is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia).
By parallel axis theorem
2
c xc x
Ay I I + =
The resultant force does
not pass through the
centroid but is always
below it.
54
Location of Resultant Force
2/2
} }
= =
A A
R R
xydA sin xdF x F u
A h sin Ay F
c c R
u = =
c
c
xyc
c
xy
c
A
R
x
A y
I
A y
I
A y
xydA
x + = = =
}
Ixy is the product of inertia wrt the x and y.
By parallel axis theorem
c c xyc xy
y Ax I I + =
Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal
coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area and
formed by a translation of the x-y coordinate system.
If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis
passing through the centroid and parallel to either the x or y
axes, Ixyc=0.
55
Geometric Properties of Common
Shapes

Figure 2.18
56
Example 2.6 Hydrostatic Pressure
Force on a Plane Circular Surface
The 4-m-diameter circular gate of Figure E2.6 (a) is located in the
inclined wall of a large reservoir containing water (=9.80kN/m
3
).
The gate is mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter. For a
water depth h
c
=10m above the shaft determine : (a) the magnitude
and location of the resultant force exerted on the gate by the water,
and (b) the moment that would have to be applied to the shaft to
open the gate
57
Example 2.6 Solution
1/3
The vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of
the area is 10m
c
c
xyc
R
x
A y
I
x + =
(a) The magnitude of the force of the water
The point (center of pressure) through which F
R
acts
A h sin Ay F
c c R
= u =
MN 23 . 1 ) m 4 )( m 10 )( m / N 10 80 . 9 ( F
2 3 3
R
= t =
c
c
xc
c
x
c
A
2
R
y
A y
I
A y
I
A y
dA y
y + = = =
}
58
Example 2.6 Solution
2/3
The distance below the shaft to the center of pressure is
( )
m 6 . 11 m 55 . 11 m 0866 . 0
60 sin
m 10
) m 4 )( 60 sin / m 10 (
) m 2 ( 4 /
y
2
4
R
= + =

+
t
t
=
4
R
I
4
xc
t
=
The area is symmetrical and the center of pressure must lie along the
diameter A-A. x
R
=0
m 0866 . 0 y y
c R
=
The force acts through a point along its diameter A-A at a distance
of 0.0866m below the shaft.
59
Example 2.6 Solution
3/3
( )
m N 10 07 . 1
) m 0866 . 0 )( MN 23 . 1 ( y y F M
5
C R R
=
= =
0 M
c
=

(b) Sum moments about the shaft

The moment required to open the gate
60
Example 2.7 Hydrostatic Pressure Force
on a Plane Triangular Surface
A large fish-holding tank contains seawater (=64.0lb/ft
3
) to a
depth of 10 ft as shown in Figure E2.7. To repair some damage to
one corner of the tank, a triangular section is replaced with a new
section as illustrated. Determine the magnitude and location of
the force of the seawater on this triangular area.
61
Example 2.7 Solution
1/2
y
c
= h
c
= 9 ft, and the magnitude of the force

F
R
=h
c
A = (64.0 lb/ ft
3
)(9 ft)(9/2 ft
2
) = 2590 lb
The y coordinate of the center of pressure (CP)
c
c
xc
R
y
A y
I
y + =
4
3
xc
ft
36
81
36
) ft 3 )( ft 3 (
I = =
62
Example 2.7 Solution
2/2
Similarly,
ft 9
) ft 2 / 9 )( ft 9 (
ft 36 / 81
y
2
4
R
+ = = 0.0556 ft + 9 ft = 9.06 ft
c
c
xyc
R
x
A y
I
x + =
4
2
xyc
ft
72
81
) ft 3 (
72
) ft 3 )( ft 3 (
I = =
ft 0278 . 0 0
) ft 2 / 9 )( ft 9 (
ft 72 / 81
x
2
4
R
= + =
The center of pressure is 0.0278 ft to the right of and
0.0556 ft below the centroid of the area
63
Pressure Prism
for vertical rectangular area
A
2
h
) bh )( h (
2
1
volume
A
2
h
A p F
av R
|
.
|

\
|
= = =
|
.
|

\
|
= =
2 2 1 1 A R
2 1 R
y F y F y F
F F F
+ =
+ =
2
h h
y
2 1
1
+
=
1
1 2
2
h
3
) h h ( 2
y +

=
64
Pressure Prism
for inclined plane area
The pressure developed depend
on the vertical distances.
65
Pressure Prism
effect of atmospheric pressure
The resultant fluid force on the surface is that due
only to the gage pressure contribution of the liquid in
contact with the surface the atmospheric pressure
does not contribute to this resultant.
66
Example 2.8 Use of the Pressure Prism
Concept
A pressurized contains oil (SG = 0.90) and has a square, 0.6-m by
0.6-m plate bolted to its side, as is illustrated in Figure E2.8 (a).
When the pressure gage on the top of the tank reads 50kPa, what is
the magnitude and location of the resultant force on the attached
plate? The outside of the tank is atmospheric pressure.
67
Example 2.8 Solution
1/2
N 10 24.4
) m)](0.36m )(2 N/m 10 1 (0.90)(9.8 N/m 10 [50
)A h (p F
3
2 3 3 2 3
1 s
1
=
+ =
+ =
The resultant force on the plate (having an area A) is due to the
components, F
1
and F
2
, where F
1
and F
2
are due to the rectangular and
triangular portions of the pressure distribution, respectively.
N 10 0.954
) )(0.36m
2
0.6m
)( N/m 10 1 (0.90)(9.8 A )
2
h - h
( F
3
2 3 3
2 1
2
=
= =
68
Example 2.8 Solution
2/2
25.4kN N 10 25.4 F F F
3
2 1 R
= = + =
The magnitude of the resultant force, F
R
, is therefore
The vertical location of F
R
can be obtained by summing moments
around an axis through point O
(0.2m) F (0.3m) F y F
2 1 0 R
+ =
0.296m
N 10 25.4
N)(0.2m) 10 (0.954 N)(0.3m) 10 (24.4
y
3
3 3
O
=

+
=
69
On a Curved Surfaces

Consider the curved section
BC of the open tank.
F1 and F2 can be determined
from the relationships for
planar surfaces.
The weight W is simply the
specific weight of the fluid
times the enclosed volume and
acts through the center of
gravity (CG) of the mass of
fluid contained within the
volume.
2
V
2
H R
1 V 2 H
F F F
W F F F F
+ =
+ = =
70
Example 2.9 Hydrostatic Pressure Force
on a Curved Surface
The 6-ft-diameter drainage conduit of figure a is half full of water at
rest. Determine the magnitude and line of action of the resultant
force that the water exerts on a 1-ft length of the curved section BC
of the conduit wall.
71
Example 2.9 Solution
lb 281 ) ft 3 )( ft
2
3
)( ft / lb 4 . 62 ( A h F
2 3
c 1
= = =
The magnitude of F
1
is found form the equation
The weight, W, is
lb 441 ) ft 1 )( ft 4 / 9 )( ft / lb 4 . 62 ( vol W
2 3
= t = =
lb 281 F F
1 H
= = lb 441 W F
v
= =
The magnitude of the resultant force
lb 523 ) F ( ) F ( F
2
V
2
H R
= + =
72
BUOYANCY
1/2

Buoyancy: The net vertical force acting on any body
which is immersed in a liquid, or floating on its surface
due to liquid pressure. F
B

Consider a body of arbitrary
shape, having a volume V, that
is immersed in a fluid,
We enclose the body in a
parallelepiped and draw a free-
body diagram of parallelpiped
with body removed as shown in
(b).
73
BUOYANCY
2/2

| | V A ) h h ( A ) h h ( F
A ) h h ( F F
W F F F
1 2 1 2 B
1 2 1 2
1 2 B
=
=
=


V g F
B
=
FB is the force the body is exerting on the fluid.
W is the weight of the shaded fluid volume
(parallelepiped minus body).
A is the horizontal area of the upper (or lower)
surface of the parallelepiped.
For a submerged body, the
buoyancy force of the fluid is equal
to the weight of displaced fluid
A
74
Archimedes Principle
For a submerged body, the buoyancy force of the fluid is
equal to the weight of displaced fluid and is directly
vertically upward.


The relation reportedly was used by Archimedes in 220
B.C. to determine the gold content in the crown of King
Hiero II.
V g F
B
=
75
Example 2.10 Buoyant Force on a
Submerged Object
A spherical buoy has a diameter of 1.5 m, weighs 8.50kN, and is
anchored to the seafloor with a cable as is shown in Figure a.
Although the buoy normally floats on the surface, at certain times
the water depth increases so that the buoy is completely immersed
as illustrated. For this condition what is the tension of the cable?

76
Example 2.10 Solution
W F T B =
With = 10.1 kN/m
3
and V = d
3
/6
N 10 1.785 ] m) 1.5 [(k/6)( ) N/m 10 10.1 ( F
4 3 3 3
B = =
V F
B
=
The tension in the cable
kN 35 . 9 N 10 850 . 0 N 10 785 . 1 T
4 4
= =
F
B
is the buoyant force acting on the buoy, W is the weight of the
buoy, and T is the tension in the cable. For Equilibrium
77
The Line of Action of FB and C.G.
The line of action of buoyancy force, which may be found
using the method of hydrostatic force on submerged
surfaces, acts through the centroid of the displaced
volume.
The point through which the buoyant force acts is called
the center of buoyancy.
C.G: The body force due to gravity on an object act
through its center of gravity (C.G.).

78
Stability
Stability? Stable? Unstable?
A body is said to be in a stable
equilibrium position if, when
displaced, it returns to its
equilibrium position. Conversely, it
is an unstable equilibrium position
if, when displaced (even slightly), it
moves to a new equilibrium
position.
79
Stability of Immersed Body
The location of the line of action of
the buoyancy force determines
stability.
While C.G. is below the center of
buoyancy, a rotation from its
equilibrium position will create a
restoring couple formed by the
weight and the buoyancy force.
If C.G. is above the center of
buoyancy,..
80
Stability of Floating Body
The determination of
stability depends in a
complicated fashion on the
particular geometry and
weight distribution of the
body.
81
Rigid-Body Motion
Pressure Variation
The entire fluid moves as if it were a rigid body
individual fluid particles, although they may be in motion,
are not deforming. This means that there are no shear
stresses, as in the case of a static fluid.
The general equation of motion
a k p

= V
z
y
x
a
z
p
a
y
p
a
x
p

+ =
c
c

=
c
c

=
c
c

Based on rectangular
coordinates with the
positive z axis being
vertically upward.
82
Linear Motion
) a g (
z
p
a
y
p
0 a
x
p
z
y
x
+ =
c
c
=
c
c
= =
c
c

The change in pressure

between two closely
spaced points located at
y, z, and y+dy , z+dz
Along a line of constant pressure, dp=0
z
y
z y
a g
a
dy
dz
dz ) a g ( dy a dp
dz
z
p
dy
y
p
dp
+
=
+ =
c
c
+
c
c
=

Y-Z plane motion
83
Example 2.11 Pressure Variation in an
acceleration tank
The cross section for the fuel tank of an experimental vehicle is
shown in Figure E2.11. the rectangular tank is vented to the
atmosphere, and a pressure transducer is located in its side as
illustrated. During testing of the vehicle, the tank is subjected to be a
constant linear acceleration, a
y
.
(a) Determine an expression that
relates ay and the pressure (in lb/ft
2
)
at the transducer for a fuel with a
SG = 0.65. (b) What is the
maximum acceleration that can
occur before the fuel level drops
below the transducer?
84
Example 2.11 Solution
1/2
g
a
dy
dz
y
=
Since a
z
= 0. Thus for some arbitrary a
y
, the change in depth, z
1

The slope of the surface
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
g
a
) ft 75 . 0 ( z
or
g
a
ft 75 . 0
z
y
1
y
1
85
Example 2.11 Solution
2/2
h p =
Where h is the depth of fuel above the transducer.
The pressure at the transducer is given by the relationship
g
a
4 . 30 3 . 20 )] g / a )( ft 75 . 0 ( ft 5 . 0 )[ ft / lb 4 . 62 )( 65 . 0 ( p
y
y
3
= =
The limiting value for (a
y
)
max
3
g 2
) a ( or
g
) a (
) ft 75 . 0 ( ft 5 . 0
max y
max y
=
(

=
=0
86
Angular Motion
1/2
In terms of cylindrical coordinates, the pressure gradient
can be expressed
z r e
z
p
e
p
r
1
e
r
p
p
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
u
u
0 a 0 a e

rw a
z r
2
r
= = =
u
The differential pressure is dz dr r dz
z
p
dr
r
p
dp
2
e =
c
c
+
c
c
=
87
Angular Motion
2/2
t tan cons z
2
r
p egration int
dz dr r dz
z
p
dr
r
p
dp
2 2
2
+
e
=
e =
c
c
+
c
c
=
Along a line of constant pressure, dp=0
t tan cons
g 2
r
z
g
r
dr
dz
2 2 2
+
e
=
e
=
The equation for surface of constant pressure is
The pressure distribution in
a rotating liquid
The equation reveals that the surfaces of constant
pressure are parabolic
Pressure distribution in a rotating fluid
88
Example 2.12 Free Surface Shape of
Liquid in a Rotating Tank
It has been suggested that the angular velocity, e, of a rotating body
or shaft can be measured by attaching an open cylinder of liquid, as
shown in Figure E2.12, and measuring with some type of depth gage
the changes in the fluid level, H-h
o
, caused by the rotation of the
fluid. Determine the relationship between this change in fluid level
and the angular velocity.

89
Example 2.12 Solution
1/2
0
2 2
h
g 2
r
h +
e
=
The initial volume of fluid in the tank H R V
2
i
t =
The height, h, of the free surface above the tank bottom
This cylindrical shell is taken at some arbitrary radius, r, and its
volume is
rhdr 2 V d t =
The total volume
0
2
4 2
R
0
0
2 2
h R
g 4
R
dr h
g 2
r
r 2 V t +
te
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
e
t =
}
90
Example 2.12 Solution
2/2
g 4
R
h H or h R
g 4
R
H R
2 2
0 0
2
4 2
2
e
= t +
te
= t
Since the volume of the fluid in the tank must remain constant
The change in depth could indeed be used to determine the rotational
speed, although the relationship between the change in depth and
speed is not a linear one.