Classification

Matter
Solid
Crystalline
Polycrystalline
Liquid
Gas
Amorphous
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 2
Crystalline
Single X
l
periodic atomic structure throughout the
volume
Each atom is related to each other in the structure by
translational or rotational symmetry


PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 3
Polycrystalline solids
aggregate of many small single X
ls
crystallites or
grains
Higher degree of order over many atomic or molecular
dimensions
Grains (domains) separated by grain boundaries
Grains - 100 nm 100 microns in diameter
Grain size < 10nm - nanocrystalline
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 4
Amorphous Solids
Non-crystalline solids randomly orientated atoms,
ions or molecules
Order of few atomic or molecular dimensions

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 5
Crystallography
Deals wit geometric description of X
ls
& their internal
arrangement
X-ray diffraction
X
l
structure: a region of matter within which the atoms
are arranged in a 3-D translationally periodic pattern

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 6
Description of crystal structure
3-D motif is the core repeated unit
Motif is repeated by translation, rotation &
reflection
X
ls
are created in 2 steps
Point group operations create motif
Translation operation creates X
l
structure
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 7
Ideal Crystal
Infinite repetition of identical structural units in
space.
Structural unit several atoms or molecules.
Structure of all X
ls
is described in terms of a lattice
with a group of atoms attached to each lattice point.
Group is called the BASIS it is repeated in space to
form the X
l
structure.

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 8
Lattice Transition Vectors & Lattices
Ideal X
l
atoms arranged on a lattice defined by 3
fundamental translation vectors a, b, c the atomic
arrangement looks the same in every respect when
viewed from the point.
r = r + ua +vb +wc (1)
u, v & w are arbitrary integers a,b, & c are translation
vectors.
Set of points defined by r from (1) for all values of
integers u, v & w LATTICE.
Lattice regular periodic arrangement of points in
space.

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 9
Lattice Transition Vectors &
Lattices(contd)
X
l
structure is formed only when a basis of atoms is
attached identically to each lattice point.
Lattice + Basis = X
l
structure
Structural unit several atoms or molecules.
Structure of all X
ls
is described in terms of a lattice
with a group of atoms attached to each lattice point.
Group is called the BASIS it is repeated in space to
form the X
l
structure.

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 10
SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 11
group of materials having conductivities between those of
metals and insulators
Elemental semiconductor materials - found in group IV of the
periodic table
Compound semiconductor materials - most of which are
formed from special combinations of group III and group V
elements
composed of single species of atoms, are silicon and
germanium
The two-element or binary compounds such as gallium
arsenide or gallium phosphide are formed by combining
one group III and one group V element. Ga As is one of the
more common of the compound semiconductors
Primitive & Unit cell
A representative unit, or group of atoms, is repeated at
regular intervals in each of the three dimensions to
form the single crystal.
The periodic arrangement of atoms in the crystal is
called the lattice.
We can represent a particular atomic array by a dot
that is called a lattice point.
A unit cell is a small volume of the crystal that can be
used to reproduce the entire crystal. A unit cell is not a
unique entity.
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 12
Two-dimensional representation of a single-
crystal lattice showing various possible unit cells
Primitive cell smallest unit cell that can be repeated
to form a lattice
Unit cell need not be primitive cell
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 13
Generalized primitive cell
Every equivalent
lattice point in the 3D
X
l
can be found out
using r = ua +vb +wc
Packing density: no:
of atoms per unit cell
depends on X
l
structure

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 14
a
Basic X
l
structures
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 15
X
l
plane & Miller indices
Intercepts: u=3, v = 2 & w =1
Reciprocal of intercepts: (1/3, ,
1/1)
multiply by least common
denominator (6)
(236)-plane
Integers miller indices (u,v,w)
Generally (hkl) plane
Distance d b/n adjacent parallel
planes of indices (h k l) in a cubic
lattice of cube edge a is
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 16
( )
2 2 2
l k h
a
d
+ +
=
Find the lattice planes
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 17
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 18
Intercepts: u=1, v = & w
=
Reciprocal of intercepts:
(1/1, 1/ , 1/ )
(100)-plane
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 19
Intercepts: u=1, v = 1 & w
=
Reciprocal of intercepts:
(1/1, 1/ 1, 1/ )
(110)-plane
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 20
Intercepts: u=1, v = 1 & w
= 1
Reciprocal of intercepts:
(1/1, 1/ 1, 1/ 1 )
(111)-plane
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 21
The unit cell and,
consequently, the entire
lattice, is determined by the
six lattice constants
:a,b,c,,and.
Common unit cells
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 22
7 types of unit cells
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 23
14 bravis lattices
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 24
Cubic

SC
BCC
FCC
Hexagonal

SC

Triclinic

SC
Monoclinic

SC
BC

orthorhombic

SC
BC
BCC
FCC
Tetrahedral

SC
Tetragonal

SC
BC

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 25
No: of atoms per unit cell
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 26
Atoms at 8 corners, shared by adjacent cells
N =(1/8) 8 = 1
8 corners + 1 body
centered, N = 2 8 corners( 1 ) + 6 face
(6 =3), N = 4
Coordination number(N): The number of equidistant
nearest neighbours that an atom has in the given structure.
Greater is the coordination number, the more closely packed
up will be the structure.
Nearest neighbour distance(2r): The distance between the
centres of two nearest neighbouring atoms. It will be the
radius of the atom.
Atomic radius: half the distance between nearest neighbours
in a crystal of pure element.
Lattice constant: a side of unit cell, r radius of the atom
2r = a; a lattice constant or lattice parameter


PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 27
Atomic packing factor(APF): The fraction of the space
occupied by atoms in a unit cell. It is the ratio of the volume
of the atoms occupying the unit cell to the volume of the
unit cell relating to that structure.

PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 28
cell primitive of Volume
cell unit a in atoms of Volume
PF APF = =
r
a = 2r
Packing factor & Calculation of
Lattice Constant
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 29
number Avogadro N
weight Atomic M
cell unit per atoms of : No
material X the of density
lattice cubic of constant lattice
A
A
l

n
a

atoms N contains meter cubic

M
cell unit the of Volume
A
A
3

a =
(

=
=
(

A
3
A
A
3
N
M
N

A
M n
a
n
a
3 / 1
A
N
(

A
M n
a
Characteristics of cubic lattices
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 30
Na Cl Structure
The space lattice is FCC
Two FCC lattices separated by one half of the body
diagonal of the unit cube.
One lattice is occupied by Na
+
atoms, the other by Cl
-

atoms.
Each atom has 6 nearest neighbors of the opposite
kind and is bound to these 6 atoms which are arranged
at the corners of the surrounding octahedron.
The bonding is typically ionic.
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 31
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 32
(100)
plane
(111)
plane
Four units of NaCl in each unit cube has atoms at
Cl
-
: 000; 0; 0 ; 0
Na
+
: ; 0 0 ; 0 0; 0 0
Zinc Blende Structure
ZnS - space lattice FCC.
Two FCC lattices which are separated by one quarter of
the body diagonal of the unit cube.
One lattice is occupied by Zn atoms, the other by S
atoms.
Each atom has 4 nearest neighbors of the opposite
kind and is bound to these 4 atoms which are arranged
at the corners of the surrounding tetrahedron.
The bonding is typically covalent.
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 33
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 34
Diamond Structure
The diamond structure is identical to the ZnS
structure, except that both lattices are occupied by the
same kind of atoms.
atoms are C
Si & Ge
FCC
Identical atoms at 000 &
PHY 252 Physics of Semiconductor Devices 35