Section1
Measurements used in Mechanical Services Measurement (The S.I. Metric system)
Measurement
Measurement
The S.I. system is the system that has been adopted for the U.K. from existing metric systems. S.I. Stands for Systeme Internationale. The construction industry uses Sub units milli but NOT the centi. i.e. millimetres, but not centimetres. However, since the introduction of metrication, the centi is becoming increasingly popular.
Measurement
1 Metre = 1000 millimetres (mm) 1 Bar = 1000 millibars (mb) 1 Bar also equals 100 kilo pascal (Kpa) 1 kilo pascal (Kpa) = 1 kilo Newton per meter squared (1kN/m2) 1 Kilogram = 1000 grams (g) 1 sq. metre = 1,000,000 sq. millimetres 1 Bar = 10 meters of head NB Milli = one thousandth of Kilo = one thousand times
Measurement
TIME IS MEASURED IN; Hours, Minutes and Seconds (s) 1hr = 60mins 1min = 60 seconds 3600 seconds = 1hr (60x60 = 3600) Seconds (s) are the preferred method
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Measuring Temperature
Latent Heat Thermal expansion
TEMPERATURE
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An example of this which is shown in a number of text books is a short length of Steel wire heated until it is red hot and a bucket of hot water. The temperature of the wire is 350C The water has a temperature of 70C
heat energy.
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MEASURING TEMPERATURE
The S.I. unit of temperature measurement is the degree Kelvin, the most common unit used in plumbing is degrees Celsius (centigrade) written as C An other unit used is Fahrenheit, it is some times necessary to convert from one scale to an other.
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Temperature scale
The difference between two fixed points is divided
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The Kelvin scale like Celsius uses single degree increments but the freezing point is 273.15k and the boiling point 100 degrees higher at 373.15k
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Absolute zero is theoretically the lowest possible temperature that can ever be reached. To convert from C to k add 273.15 and to convert from k to C subtract 273.15. no temperature in Kelvin is negative but Celsius is negative when it drops below 0C
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Converting to Fahrenheit
Celsius 0 4 20 36.8 43.3 60 65 85 100 Location Freezing point of (water) Maximum density (water) Average room temperature Blood temperature Bath water Washing-up water Primary return Primary flow Boiling point (water) Fahrenheit 32 39.2 68 98.4 110 140 149 185 212
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to 5 divisions Celsius
To put it an other way 1 degree Celsius is 95 times greater than 1 degree Fahrenheit
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As Fahrenheit starts at 32. Therefore the formula for converting from Fahrenheit to Celsius is Degrees Celsius = Degrees Fahrenheit 32 x 5 9
WORKED EXAMPLE
Convert 212 Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius
Degrees Celsius = degrees Fahrenheit 32 x 5 9 Degree Celsius = 212 32 x 5 9 20 Degree Celsius = 180 x 5 9
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Worked example Convert 20 Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit Degrees Fahrenheit = degrees Celsius x 9 + 32 5 4 Degrees Fahrenheit = 20 x 9 + 32 5
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Convert 212 Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius Degrees Celsius = (F 32) x 0.56 = C Degrees Celsius = (212-32) x 0.56
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Convert 20 Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit Celsius to Fahrenheit = (C x 1.8) + 32 Degrees Fahrenheit = (20 x 1.8) + 32 Degrees Fahrenheit = 68 F
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LATENT HEAT
There are three forms of state in which a substance can exist,
Solid Liquid Gas
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Heat that brings about a change in state with no change in temperature is called latent (hidden) heat. When a substance changes state the temperature stays the same. It is the addition or removal of the heat that produces the change of state.
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Heat which causes a change in temperature in a substance is called sensible heat. When ice turns to water it is changing state from a solid to a liquid. In order to achieve this the ice requires
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Temperature C
100
Water to steam
0
Ice to water
E
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Now in your own words on the note page provided sum up the following terms,
MELTING FREEZING BOILING EVAPORATING / EVAPORATION CONDENSING
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From point A to point B the temperature is rising steadily. The heat being absorbed during this period is called sensible heat because it can be sensed by the thermometer. From B to C it is apparent that heat is still being absorbed but it is not visible on the thermometer
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From B to C it is apparent that heat is still being absorbed but not visible on the thermometer, so it is called latent heat because it cannot be seen. From C to D the thermometer shows the second increase in sensible heat and from D to E shows
This is the amount of time required to heat up a quantity of water to a specific temperature
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power rating.
It is possible to calculate the heat recovery period.
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Measurement (RECAP)
TIME IS MEASURED IN; Hours, Minutes and Seconds (s) 1hr = 60mins 1min = 60 seconds 3600 seconds = 1hr (60x60 = 3600) Seconds (s) are the preferred method
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= Power Required
SH = the specific heat of water (the amount of energy required to heat 1kg of water by 1C) Kg = the weight of water to be heated
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containing
= 4.36 kW
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This example does not allow for heat loss and the heating-up of the HWSC. It is advisable to add 10% which will allow for this loss. 4.36 + 0.43 4.79 kW
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Example: Find the power required to heat a cylinder containing 125 litres of water to 60C Incoming water supply temperature = 18C Customer requires water, to be at 60C, in hour
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= Power Required
= time in seconds
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Example: Find out how long it will take to heat a cylinder containing 136 litres of water to 60C, using the 3kW immersion heater. Incoming water supply temperature = 4C
= time in seconds
= 10662 seconds
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10662 60 = 177 minutes = 2 hrs 57mins
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Example: Find out how long it will take to heat a cylinder containing 150 litres of water to 60C, using the 27kW gas boiler.
= time in seconds
= 1097 seconds
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1097 = 18 minutes 60
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Example: Find the power required to heat a cylinder containing 130 litres of water to 60C. Incoming water supply temperature = 12C Customer requires water to be at 60C, in 1 hour Example: Find out how long it will take to heat a cylinder containing 115 litres of water to 60C, using the 23kW gas boiler. Incoming water supply temperature = 5C
Example: Find out how long it will take to heat a cylinder containing 120 litres of water to 60C, using the 3kW immersion heater. Incoming water supply temperature = 14C
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Example: Find the power required to heat a cylinder containing 130 litres of water to 60C. Incoming water supply temperature = 12C Customer requires water, to be at 60C, in 1 hour
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Example: Find out how long it will take to heat a cylinder containing 115 litres of water to 60C, using the 23kW gas boiler. Incoming water supply temperature = 5C
= time in seconds
= 1155 seconds
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1155 = 19 minutes 60
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Example: Find out how long it will take to heat a cylinder containing 120 litres of water to 60C, using the 3kW immersion heater.
= time in seconds
= 7728 seconds
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7728 60
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E.g. the heat required to raise 1kg of water by 1C is 4.186kJ and 0.125kJ would be required to raise 1kg of lead by 1C
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HEAT TRANSFER
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Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy through a material. This happens because of the increased vibration of molecules, which occurs when materials are heated.
The vibrations from the heated material are then passed on to the adjoining material, which then heats up in turn.
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Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat by means of movement of a
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Radiation
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polished surfaces.
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Now in your own words on the note page provided sum up the following terms,
CONVECTION
CONDUCTION
RADIATION
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THERMAL EXPANSION
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Most materials will expand when heated. This because the molecules in a substance move about more vigorously when heated. The molecules will then move further apart from each other, this will mean that the materials taking up more volume.
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When a material cools the molecules slow down and move closer together, thus the material gets smaller or contracts. The amount a material expands in length can be calculated using the following formula. Length (m) x temp rise (C) x coefficient of linear
expansion
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Material Plastic
Coefficient C 0.00018
Zinc Lead Aluminium Tin Copper Cast iron Mild Steel Invar
Worked Example Calculate the amount a 4m long plastic discharge stack will expanded
PROPERTIES OF WATER
What are we going to look at?
Classification of water Corrosion Specific heat capacity Heat transfer
Capillary attraction
Siphonage
Properties of Water
CLASSIFICATION OF WATER
Water is a chemical compound which is made up of Hydrogen and
Properties of Water
The purest form of water is rain water which is collected on the open countryside. It contains dissolved gases such as nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide, this doesnt affect its potability
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Acidic and alkaline water can both damage the materials used in plumbing systems, by causing corrosion. Metals are particularly at risk from corrosive effects of acids and alkalis.
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
CORROSION
There are four main causes of corrosion The effects of air
Properties of Water
Atmospheric Corrosion Pure air and water have little corrosive effects, but together in the form of moist air (oxygen + water vapour) they can attack ferrous*
metals such as steel and iron very quickly to form iron oxide or
rust. * Metal that contains iron
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
These gases are often found near industrial areas as these gases
are often waste products from various industrial processes.
Properties of Water
due to the amount of sodium chloride (salt) from the sea which
become dissolved into the local atmosphere.
Non- ferrous metals such as copper, aluminium and lead, have significant protection against atmospheric corrosion. Protective barriers usually sulphates form on these metals to prevent further corrosion. This protection is called a patina
Properties of Water
Corrosion by Water Ferrous metals are particularly vulnerable to the effects of corrosion caused by water. The effects of this corrosion are commonly seen in central heating systems as black ferrous oxide
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
If the water in an area has a high acidity (soft water ) the internal wall of the copper may become slightly discoloured. This will not affect the safety or quality of the drinking water.
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Heavy clay soils may contain sulphates which can corrode lead, steel and copper. Grounds containing ash and cinders are also very corrosive as they are strongly alkaline, if pipes are to be laid in such ground they should be wrapped in protective material
Properties of Water
ELECTROLYTIC ACTION
Electrolytic action is caused when two very dissimilar metals come into contact with each other. The process involves the flow of
Properties of Water
This process is called electrolysis. It will lead to the destruction of the anode. The time that it takes to destroy the anode will depend on :
Properties of Water
The list on the next slide shows the common elements used in the
Properties of Water
Copper Tin Lead Nickel Cadmium Iron Chromium Zinc Aluminium Magnesium
Cathodic
Anodic
Properties of Water
The elements higher up the list will destroy those lower down through electrolytic corrosion. The further the elements are to each other the faster the corrosion takes place.
Properties of Water
This problem needs to be recognised by plumbers, especially if metal such as copper and galvanised tube and copper fitting are
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
CAPILLARY ATTRACTION
Capillary attraction is when a liquid is drawn up through a small gap between the surfaces of two materials.
Properties of Water
Adhesion is the ability to stick to a surface. Water in a smal tube such as a U gauge (manometer), has a curved surface where the water adheres to the sides of the tube. This is called the meniscus
Properties of Water
Meniscus
Properties of Water
Adhesion
Properties of Water
Cohesion is the ability of a liquid to pull itself into a ball. This is also called surface tension. A simple illustration of this is rainwater laying on a well-polished car
Properties of Water
Cohesion
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
This can be avoided by installing an anti-capillarity groove, this will prevent water entering the building
Properties of Water
Capillary attraction can also take place within an S trap often found under sinks, if a piece of dish cloth becomes lodged in to
the in the trap. Capillary attraction could take place. This can lead
to the loss of the trap seal and smells filtering back into the home from the drains
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Principles of Siphonage Atmospheric pressure is the key to siphonage. Siphonage works when atmospheric pressure is able to force water through a tube i.e. a length of hose pipe. It may appear that it is going against
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Properties of Water
Water Refrigerant Anti- freeze- glycol mixes Fuel oils Lubricants / Greases
WATER
REFRIGERANT
Used in Air conditioning, freezers and fridge units and heat pumps. Mixture of chemicals and gasses in order to perform at extreme temperatures Data sheets for refrigerants
ANTI- FREEZE / GLYCOL MIXES Used in solar thermal panels, combustion engines, Etc. Mixture of chemicals in order to perform at extreme temperatures Product data sheet
Fuel oils are mainly used for heating purposes, however majority of mechanical moving parts require an oil or grease as a lubricant.
Carbon Based non renewable taken from the earth and refined into the above products at various levels
Air and steam LPG Liquid Petroleum Gas Natural Gas Carbon Dioxide Refrigerant Gasses
These are mainly used for producing pressure in order to drive industrial machinery.
A gas that is used to heat homes and for cooking in rural areas not on mains gas. You use this gas for soldering, camping and caravan, boats etc.
Factories may use this for localised heating.
Natural Gas
Supplied from the gas mains, and currently the most common gas used for heating buildings, both domestic and industrial.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon dioxide in solid and in liquid form is used for refrigeration and cooling. It is used as an inert gas in chemical processes, in the storage of carbon powder and in fire extinguishers.
Pipe freezing kits may use this gas.
Refrigerant Gases
Used in Air condition, freeze and fridge units and heat pumps.
Plumbing science
What are we going to look at?
Mass and weight
Density liquids and gases
Relative density
Pressure
Properties of gasses
Temperature of Gases.
Properties of Gases
(Typical Values)
Quality/Unit
Natural Methane
Propane
Butane
Chemical Formula Boiling Point Relative Density (Liquid) Relative Density ( Gas) Gross Calorific Value Gas Family Flammability Limits Air/Gas Ratio Oxygen/Gas Ratio Flame Speed Ignition Temperature Maximum Flame Temp. System Operating Pressure
CH4 -1620C 0.58 38.5MJ/m3 2nd 5-15% 9.81:1 2:1 0.36m/s 7040C 10000C 21mb (+/- 2)
C3H8 -420C 0.5 1.78 95MJ/m3 3rd 2.3-9.5% 23.8:1 5:1 0.46m/s 5300C 19800C 37mb (+/-5)
C4H10 -20C 0.57 2.0 121MJ/m3 3rd 1.9-8.5% 30.9:1 6.5:1 0.38m/s 5000C 19960C 28mb (+/- 5)
Properties of gasses
Boyles Law 2
Properties of gasses
A basin tap will have the same mass, if it is on a work bench or on the
moon.
Plumbing Science
The weight of an object is the force exerted by its mass, due to the acceleration owing to force of gravity.
On the earth all objects are being accelerated towards centre of the
planet. This is due to the earths gravitational pull.
Plumbing Science
Pull exerted by gravity on mass of an object is known as its weight . We measure weight in Newton's. A Newton is equivalent to 1 metre per second (m/s2) per 1kg of mass.
Plumbing Science
Plumbing Science
On the Earth
Plumbing Science
On the moon
The gravitational pull of the moon is approximately 1.633m/s. An object with a mass of 1kg on the moon - would weigh 1.633 newtons.
Plumbing Science
Mass of the object does not change whether it is on earth or on the moon, but weight of an object changes immensely due to the reduced gravitational pull of the moon.
Solid materials which have the same shape, can frequently have a
completely different mass. This is know as is density. The density of an
Plumbing Science
To calculate this the following formula is used Density = mass volume Liquids and gases also have different densities, dependent on the number of molecules present within a particular volume of a Substance.
Plumbing Science
It is also very important to understand that the density of water changes when temperature of water changes. Water is less dense when heated. 1m3 of water at 4C has a mass of 1000Kg 1m3 of water at 82 C has a mass of 967Kg
Plumbing Science
Air
Polystyrene
Mass of all cubes are the same but volumes are different. Lead will occupy a smaller volume than both air and the polystyrene, due to its molecules being more tightly packed
Lead
Plumbing Science
Thus, gases have the smallest densities when compared to solids and liquids. Gas molecules contain mostly empty space, while molecules in liquids, are again more tightly packed together.
Plumbing Science
RELATIVE DENSITY
Plumbing Science
Knowing this, we can calculate weight of any substance by dividing density of a substance by the density of water. Water is always shown as 1.0
Plumbing Science
Using this information, we know that any material with a higher number
than 1.0 will sink in water and any number lower will float.
The relative density of gases can also be measured by comparing the specific gravity of air, which is also expressed as 1.0
Material Solids and Liquids Water Class C fuel oil Linseed oil Aluminium Zinc Cast iron Tin
Relative density
Mild steel
Copper Lead (Milled) Mercury Gases
7.7
8.9 11.3 13.6
Air
Methane ( Natural Gas) Propane Butane
1.0
0.6 1.5 2.0
Plumbing Science
10c
1c
4c
4c
Plumbing Science
Plumbing Science
Eventually convection currents are set up, allowing a continuous flow of heat upwards from its source.
Equilibrium.
Using the Pcs Reach the above.
Plumbing Science
FORCE
We cannot see force, however its effects can be seen in the next slide
Plumbing Science
Force
Force
An object weighing 1 kg, dropped from a height, will travel at an acceleration of 9.81 metres/second squared (m/s2) due to the earths gravitational pull (gravity)
Plumbing Science
What effect does force have, acting upon a water storage cistern?
If a cistern holds 50 litres of water. What is the gravitational force acting
Plumbing Science
Force = Mass x acceleration Force = 50kg* x 9.81m/s2 Force = 490.5N * 1Litre of water weighs 1kg 50kg
Plumbing Science
PRESSURE
Plumbing Science
Water that flows from our taps is fed from reservoirs, water towers or
cold water storage cisterns within a building.
It is usual for water to be delivered under the force of gravity, providing there is necessary pressure required in allowing water to flow to each out-let tap.
Plumbing Science
Pressure is measured in newtons per square metre (N/m2) It is also known as Pascal (Pa) You may have come across other terms used to identify pressure they include (Bar or Pounds per square inch (ibs/in2)
Plumbing Science
Static Pressure
Water will find its own level when exposed to atmosphere and with no
flow (static).
This occurs, what ever shape of the vessel in which water is placed, and
a result of gravitational force acting downwards on the water. 1 bar = 100,000N/m2 1lbs/in2 = 6894N/m2
Plumbing Science
Plumbing Science
Pressure is exerted by solid objects in downwards direction only, however, liquids exert pressure downwards and sideways.
Plumbing Science
There are basically two ways of creating pressure in plumbing systems: 1. By connecting a pump into the system pipe-work; or
Plumbing Science
The higher the column of water (plumbers call this head of water) the greater pressure exerted at its lowest point.
Plumbing Science
Intensity of pressure or static pressure can be defined as force (KPa) created by the weight of a given mass of water acting upon one unit area (1m2). Example: Intensity of pressure = head x 9.18 KPa (gravitational force)
Plumbing Science
Total Pressure is the intensity of pressure multiplied by the area acted on.
Example: