OE 5663

Dynamic Positioning
Forces on a DP vessel
A.B. Aalbers
MARIN
OE 5662 Introduction:
Forces on a dynamically positioned
vessel
Environmental forces
Fluid reaction forces
Thruster forces
Idealised DP: F
environment
= F
reaction
+F
DP system generated

In idealised DP the sum of all forces is zero, so the acceleration of the
vessel is zero. But is this optimum DP??

Effects of:
1. Cyclic forces (wave frequency forces)
2. Positioning watch circle
3. Extreme weather is rare
No DP ?


Forces
Environmental forces are excitation forces, i.e.:

Forces that make the ship move from target position and heading

Due to the mass of a ship, it is not responsive to fast
variations of the exciting forces, e.g. see the response
of a single d.o.f. system
Frequency
Amplitude
Resonance
frequency
Forces
Environmental forces are:
Wind forces
Wave forces
Current forces

Each of this forces has its own particulars and is
important.
Viz. frequency range of variations

In addition, the physical flow phenomena of waves
and current in the water affects the performance of
the thrusters


Forces
Environmental forces.




Forces
Wind
Hurricane



Hurricane Katrina (NDBC Buoy 42040)
August 28-29 2005
0
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5
Date, (Day.Hrs)
S
i
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
n
t

W
a
v
e

H
t

(
m
)




M
o
d
a
l

W
a
v
e

P
e
r
i
o
d

(
s
e
c
)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
W
i
n
d

S
p
e
e
d

(
k
t
s
)
Signif icant Wave Ht
Modal Wave Period
Wind Speed
Extreme weather: Katrina
Forces
Wind
Storm



Forces
Wind forces
Steady flow force
Dynamic wind

Steady flow: F()=
1
/
2
V
2
A C
d
()

All physics is in the C
d
value and definition of the V (velocity):

Shape effects
Shielding effects
Interaction effects
Cross flow velocity
Reference height dependency: V(z) = V(z=10) [
Z
/
10
]
0,125





Forces
Wind force Cd values

The wind force is determined using the empirical C
d
values,
the drag coefficient.
The C
d
values can be obtained by:
. Wind tunnel tests
. Estimation
Note that for estimation use is made of empirical coefficients
for standard shapes (building block method).

In is practical to include the wind profile effects (
1
/
8
power law)
in the C
d
values for the total ship.

Hence, the wind force is direction dependent F
WIND
=F()



Forces
Wind force Cd values
Typical dependency of wind coefficients on direction:


X
Y
M
0 180 degr
0 180 degr
0 180 degr
Deck house aft
Forces
Wind and Current
forces:
Flow regimes




Forces
Forces on a cylinder

Reynolds number
Dependence

Strouhal number:
S
n
=
f.b
/
V

Used to calculate
Vortex shedding
Frequency

Leads to Vortex
Induced Motions
(VIM)


Forces
Dynamic wind (gusting)

Wind spectrum:
Harris
Ochi Shin
DnV

Various wind spectrum formulations, but the low frequency
part is most important and can be quite different, depending
on the spectral fit formulation.

Normally wind is defined as 1 hour sustained (mean) wind
speed, but 10 minute and 1 minute values are abt. 25 and 40 %
higher



Forces
Dynamic wind
Spectra

Spectrum depends
on surface cond
n.


Forces
Currents

Similarity with wind flow forces
Ocean currents can be significant:
Example: Loop Current Eddies in Gulf of Mexico
Loop Current Eddies
1. Warm water from the
Caribbean Sea enters the gulf.
2. A "Loop Current" gradually
forms in the eastern gulf.
Eventually, the loop breaks off
and forms an eddy.
3. The eddy has a core of warm
water, and rotates clockwise as
it moves west across the gulf.
Clockwise-rotating eddies in the
northern hemisphere are called
anticyclones.
4. Smaller eddies spin off the
warm anticyclones. These
rotate in the opposite direction,
and are called cyclones.
Forces
Current forces

The current force is a flow force, which is described with a formula
similar to that for wind forces:

F
c
=
1
/
2
V
C
2
A C
D

In addition to the effects which were also found for wind (velocity
profile, Reynolds number dependency, vortex shedding and dynamic
effects due to turbulence) there is another strong effect:

Keel clearance (water depth to draft ratio) effect


Forces
Current force Cd values

Typical dependency of current coefficients on direction:


X
Y
M
0 180 degr
0 180 degr
0 180 degr
Forces
Current forces
OCIMF current coefficients

Typical dependency of
current force on keel
clearance



Forces
Wave drift forces

Assume a regular wave:



(t) =
a
sin (t)

The first order forces associated with the wave are then:

F (t) = F
a
sin (t+
F
)

These are oscillatory forces around zero mean.
t

F
Forces
Wave drift forces

Second order forces:
Example of the ball



Relative motion
Second order pressures
Bernoulli
p-p
0
= -gz -V
2
-

/
t



The ball slowly drifts with the waves
Reflected waves
Incoming waves
Forces
Wave drift forces
Computation of drift forces: potential theory and perturbance
theory (J.A. Pinkster)
4 Major contributions in deep water:
Relative motion around waterline
Dynamic pressure on submerged hull
Translation in a pressure gradient
Rotational motion orthogonal to inertia forces



+ Contribution in shallow water:
Second order potential pressure



) ( ) (
2
2
1
2
2
1
g t
S S
r
WL
x M dS n x dS n dl n g F + V V =
} } }
o | | ,
Forces
Wave drift forces
In regular waves the wave drift force is
constant:





In irregular waves the wave drift force
slowly varies:



F
(2)

t
F
(2)

t


Forces
Wave drift forces
In regular waves the wave drift force is different
for each frequency:










In regular waves the wave drift force depends on
the amplitude squared F
(2)
~
2



In irregular waves it is more complicated
F
(2)
/
2


Forces
Wave drift forces
Irregular wave drift forces: Wave groups
Simple case: 2 regular waves with different frequency and phase

2

(t) =
i
sin (
i
+
i
)

i=1

A
2
(t) =
1
(t).
2
(t)* = (Hilbert product)
=
1
2
+
2
2
+ 2
1

2
cos ( t + )
with =
1
-
2

A
2
(t)
Mean
Forces
Wave drift forces
Wave groups

In accordance with the definition of wave energy (S

=
n
2
)
one can define the low frequency part of the square of the
wave envelope as:
S
A
2 () =(2
1

2
)
2

= 8 S

(
1
) S

(
2
)

Generalisation for an irregular wave train with infinite
frequencies yields the following expression for the spectral
density of all wave groups with frequency difference :
S
A
2 () = 8
0
}

() S

(+) d

Forces
Wave drift forces
Wave group spectrum




S
A
2
S

0 0
150 15
Wave
Spectrum
Group
spectrum
Forces
Wave drift forces
Irregular wave drift forces in a regular wave group:

If the mean drift force in a regular wave of frequency
i
and
amplitude is given by:
X
i
(2)
=
i
2
. P
ii
with

and using:
A
2
(t) =
1
2
+
2
2
+ 2
1

2
cos ( t + )

then one can derive that:

n n

X
i
(2)
={
i.

j
. P
ij
}|
i=j
= 2
0
}

()P(,) d,

i=1 j=1
and


S
F
() = 8
0
}

() S

(+) P
2
(,+) d

P
ii

P
ii
= X(2)/
a
2
at
i

Forces
Wave drift forces
Irregular wave drift forces

P
ij
is called the quadratic transfer function
for the second order forces (QTF)
For engineering purposes it is computed
with diffraction theory (V~0)


Figure 2: Result of wave drift force time trace from RTEFE (numerical test)
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
x 10
4
100*Fx
100*Fy
M
2000*Wave
M
Fy
M
Fy
Forces
Simulated time traces of wave drift forces
Wave drift forces
Irregular wave drift forces can be measured to some accuracy using bi-
spectral analysis, if one succeeds in keeping the vessel restrained for 2nd
order motions only => e.g. from a DP test

example
Forces
F
x

F
y

M
z

Forces
Wave drift forces
Irregular wave drift forces: Statistics

The low frequency wave drift forces are assumed to be
following an exponential distribution:

P( X
(2)
> X ) = exp-[ X/
X
]
where
X
is the standard deviation of the LF drift force

P( X
(2)
> X )
X
(2)

Forces
Wave drift forces
Computation example of excursions in a station keeping system


2
X
= ~ S
F
/2bc

S
F
= the low frequency spectral density of the wave drift force for ->0
= ~ 26500 kN
2
m
4
s
b = the low frequency damping =~ D
X
=1500 kNs/m
c = the spring =~ P
X
= 70 kN/m
The values are given for a DP ship of 250 m. The estimated value
of S
F
is for a 5.5 m sea state with T
P
= 14 s from ahead.
Hence
2
X
= ~0.4 m and = ~0.6 m

Please note that this assumes that spring and damping are exerted without
delay. In real life we have thrusters and many feedback loops ===> real
excursions are much larger
Forces
Positioning simulation for a 250 m DP
tanker
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
-5
0
5
wave_modeltest
wave_Simulation
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
100
110
120
130
X_Modeltest
X_Simulation
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
-4
-2
0
2
Y_Modeltest
Y_Simulation
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
-2
0
2
4
M_Modeltest
M_Simulation
Summarising
Environmental Forces
Wind Forces: Important and varying
Wind feed forward is commonly applied
Current Forces: Relatively steady, very
heading dependent, sometimes high speed
currents
Loop Current Warning systems in GoM
Wave drift forces: For large ships important,
varying and heading dependent
Needs more attention than 25% sea margin
approach
The other side of the force
balance


Environmental (exciting) forces are
opposed by thruster forces
Thrusters
Azimuthing thrusters
Tunnel thrusters
Main propellers + rudders
Podded thrusters

Thrust limitations
Forces
Thrusters
A thruster accelerates water and generates thereby a reaction
force. The basic actuator is a lifting surface (propeller, plate)
A ring shaped wing around the propeller may be applied to
enhance the efficiency at low vessel speed.

Typical thrusters for DP are:
Azimuthing or fixed heading thrusters with nozzles
Tunnel thrusters
Propeller(s) in combination with rudders
Recently, in special cases use has been made of:
Podded thrusters
Water /pumpjet thrusters
Voigt-Schneider (harbour tugs)



Forces
Examples of thrusters
RUDDER PROPELLER




Forces
Examples of thrusters
POD propellers




Forces
Examples of thrusters
Contra rotating propellers




Forces
Examples of thrusters:
Azimuthing thruster




Forces
Examples of thrusters
PUMPJET




Forces
Thruster characteristics
Thrust coefficient K
T
= T / (n
2
D
4
)
Torque coefficient K
Q
= Q / (n
2
D
5
)
Advance coefficient J = V
advance
/ (nD)

Propeller Pitch Angle
Pitch ratio at 0.7 D P
0.7
/D (from P = D tan )
Expanded Blade Area A
E
Usually quantified as:
Coefficient: A
E
/A
0
(with A
0
=
1
/
4
D
2
)

D= propeller diameter
n= propeller revs per second

Open water thrust, J=0
Forces
Thrusters
Practical values for the coefficients (OPEN WATER)



Thrust = ~n
2
= K
T
D
4
n n =rps
Torque = ~n
2
= K
Q
D
5
n
K
T
= Dimensionless thrust coefficient
Nozzle contributes up to 45% of total thrust
Blade tip velocity not to exceed 30-35 m/s (conventional screw,
pushing mode)
Power consumption = Q =~n = 2K
Q
D
5
n
Merit coefficient h
D
= K
T
.K
Q
-2/3
= up to 3.75
Thrust, kN per kWatt = 0.321 h
D
.load
-1/3
or ~0.15 kN/kW
with load = kWatt per m of the thruster

Design of Thruster Layout
Not in open water
Hull Form

Power

Thrust Degradation Effects
Optimisation hull form / thruster location
Forces
Thrust Degradation Effects
Thruster - Hull Interaction

Thruster - Thruster Interaction

Thruster - Current Interaction

Thruster - Wave Interaction
Forces
Thruster - Hull Interaction
Jet Flow Effects:
Effect of Hull Shape
Induced Forces (Pressures) on Hull
Appendages (Blocking of Jet)

Special case: Tunnel Thrusters

Sensitive to Current Speed !
Forces
Coanda Effect
Forces
Tilted nozzle to reduce Coanda
Effect
Thruster - Hull Interaction
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Vc = 0 m/s
Vc = 1.9 m/s
= thruster position
Vc
SB-pontoon
PS-pontoon
Forces
Thruster - Wave Interaction
B
A
Forces
Tunnel Thrusters
Forces
Thrust reduction as function of
tunnel length and diameter
0%
50%
100%
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
L/D tunnel thruster [-]
E
f
f
e
c
t
i
v
e

T
h
r
u
s
t
measurements
Model
Forces
Thrusters in waves:
If deep submerged: little effect
If emerging or shallow: strong effect of
ventilation
Varying inflow field due to ship motions:
little effect for conventional thrusters, but
effect on tunnel thruster is non-negligible
Thruster - Thruster Interaction
Jet Flow Blocking against obstacle
Can also be an appendage
Thruster Efficiency Degradation due to
inflow
Tunnel thrusters in aft ship
Azimuthing thrusters
Forces
Thruster - Thruster Interaction
Forces
Thruster - Thruster Interaction
Forces
Thruster - Current Interaction
Thrust vs. current velocity
Kamewa UUC 70001
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
-1 0 1 2 3 4
Vc (relative) [m/s]
T
h
r
u
s
t

[
k
N
]

Forces
Thruster - Current Interaction
Nozzle thrust
breakdown may occur
Forces
Current Direction w.r.t. Thruster
0 180 90
T
T
bollard

Full
power
What to do with forces
Counteract in feedback mode
PID controller defines required thrust on basis of
vessel drift velocity and position error (+ history)
Sometimes Kalman filter rest force estimate is
applied as additional force requirement

Counteract in feed forward mode
Wind feed forward
Wave drift force feed forward
Current feed forward in thruster allocation
Forces
State of the Art
Wave drift force feed forward: real time estimation
of the wave drift forces on a ship




F
x

F
y

M
z

Comparing estimated and theoretical
wave drift forces
Forces
DP with and without wave drift force feed forward




Feed Forward DP
Forces
Conclusions

Environmental forces are always varying
Thrusters do not necessarily provide the force you would
expect
DP feedback provides stability in positioning, if well
dimensioned and tuned
DP feed forward optimises in positioning performance