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Biomechanics of Resistance Training

Muscle Skeletal System


Bones and Muscles
Joints Ligaments Tendons

Origins, insertions, and Actions Agonist and Antagonist Synergist - assists directly in a movement (counteractions)

Physics of the Muscular System


Lever Fulcrum - Pivot point Moment arm - Perpendicular distance from the line of action to the fulcrum Torque - degree to which a force rotates an object around a fulcrum Muscle force - Force generated from the activity Resistive force - Force generated by a source outside of the body

Musculoskeletal System
Skeleton
Muscles function by pulling against bones that rotate about joints and transmit force through the skin to the environment. The skeleton can be divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.

Skeletal Musculature
A system of muscles enables the skeleton to move. Origin = proximal (toward the center of the body) attachment Insertion = distal (away from the center of the body) attach-ment

Mechanical Advantage
mechanical advantage: The ratio of the moment arm through which an applied force acts to that through which a resistive force acts. A mechanical advantage greater than 1.0 allows the applied (muscle) force to be less than the resistive force to produce an equal amount of torque. A mechanical advantage of less than 1.0 is a disadvantage in the common sense of the term.

Torque
The degree to which a force tends to rotate and object about a specified axis of rotation (fulcrum)

Levers
First-class lever Second-class lever Third-class lever

First Class Lever


Muscle and resistive force act opposite the fulcrum

Second Class Lever


muscle and resistive force act on the same side as the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting through a moment arm longer than that through which the resistive force acts

Third Class Lever


muscle and resistive force act on the same side as the fulcrum, with the muscle force acting through a moment arm shorter than that through which the resistive force acts

Variations in Tendon Position


Insertion further from axis of rotation should be stronger(B)
However a decrease speed associated with movement

Insertion closer to axis of rotation will be weaker(A)


However an increase is speed is associated with movement

Tendon Insertion and Joint Angle


Figure 4.9 (next slide)
The slide shows changes in joint angle with equal increments of muscle shortening when the tendon is inserted (a) closer to and (b) farther from the joint center. Configuration (b) has a larger moment arm and thus greater torque for a given muscle force, but less rotation per unit of muscle contraction and thus slower movement speed.

Figure 4.9

Reprinted, by permission, from Gowitzke and Milner, 1988.

The Patella and Mechanical Advantage


Figure 4.6 (next slide)
(a) The patella increases the mechanical advantage of the quadriceps muscle group by maintaining the quadriceps tendons distance from the knees axis of rotation. (b) Absence of the patella allows the tendon to fall closer to the knees center of rotation, shortening the moment arm through which the muscle force acts and thereby reducing the muscles mechanical advantage.

Figure 4.6

Reprinted, by permission, from Gowitzke and Milner, 1988.

Moment Arm and Mechanical Advantage


Figure 4.7 (next slide)
During elbow flexion with the biceps muscle, the perpendicular distance from the joint axis of rotation to the tendons line of action varies throughout the range of joint motion. When the moment arm (M) is shorter, there is less mechanical advantage.

Figure 4.7

Moment Arm
Figure 4.8 (next slide)
As a weight is lifted, the moment arm (M) through which the weight acts, and thus the resistive torque, changes with the horizontal distance from the weight to the elbow.

Figure 4.8

Key Point
Most of the skeletal muscles operate at a considerable mechanical disadvantage. Thus, during sports and other physical activities, forces in the muscles and tendons are much higher than those exerted by the hands or feet on external objects or the ground.

Strength & Power


Acceleration - change in velocity per unit time Strength - maximal force that a muscle can produce at a specific velocity Work = Force x distance Power = Work/time

Find Power
Subject
BW 130 kg 1 RM Clean 150 kg Distance traveled .65m Time to lockout .6s

1 RM Deadlift 300kg Distance traveled .4m Time to lockout 2.5s

Clean
Work=Force x gravitational constant x distance (w=150kgx9.8m/sx.65m) (w=955Nm) Power=work/time (p=955Nm/.6s) (p=1591.7watts) Realative Power= power/BW (Rp= 1591.7watts/130kg) (Rp=12.2watts/kg)

Deadlift
Work=Force x gravitational constant x distance (w=300kgx9.8m/sx.4m) (w=1176 Nm) Power=work/time (p=1174Nm/2.5s) (p=470.4 watts) Realative Power= power/BW (Rp= 470.4watts/130kg) (Rp=3.62watts/kg)

Biomechanical Factors in Strength


Neural Control
Motor unit recruitment Rate motor units are fired (rate coding)

Muscle Cross Sectional Area Arrangement of Muscle Fiber


Pennate arrangement

Muscle length Joint Angle Muscle Contraction Velocity Joint angular speed Strength to Mass ratio Body Size

Human Strength and Power


Basic Definitions
strength: The capacity to exert force at any given speed. power: The mathematical product of force and velocity at whatever speed.

Human Strength and Power


Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
Neural Control
Muscle force is greater when: (a) more motor units are involved in a contraction, (b) the motor units are greater in size, or (c) the rate of firing is faster.

Muscle Cross-Sectional Area


The force a muscle can exert is related to its crosssectional area rather than to its volume.

Arrangement of Muscle Fibers


Variation exists in the arrangement and alignment of sarcomeres in relation to the long axis of the muscle.

Key Terms
pennate muscle: A muscle with fibers that align obliquely with the tendon, creating a featherlike arrangement. angle of pennation: The angle between the muscle fibers and an imaginary line between the muscles origin and insertion; 0 corresponds to no pennation.

Muscle Fiber Arrangements


Figure 4.11 (next slide)
Muscle fiber arrangements and an example of each

Figure 4.11

Human Strength and Power


Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
Muscle Length
At resting length: actin and myosin filaments lie next to each other; maximal number of potential cross-bridge sites are available; the muscle can generate the greatest force. When stretched: a smaller proportion of the actin and myosin filaments lie next to each other; fewer potential cross-bridge sites are available; the muscle cannot generate as much force. When contracted: the actin filaments overlap; the number of cross-bridge sites is reduced; there is decreased force generation capability.

Muscle Length and Actin and Myosin Interaction


Figure 4.12 (next slide)
The slide shows the interaction between actin and myosin filaments when the muscle is at its resting length and when it is contracted or stretched. Muscle force capability is greatest when the muscle is at its resting length because of increased opportunity for actin-myosin crossbridges.

Figure 4.12

Human Strength and Power


Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
Joint Angle
Amount of torque depends on force versus muscle length, leverage, type of exercise, the body joint in question, the muscles used at that joint, and the speed of contraction.

Muscle Contraction Velocity


Nonlinear, but in general, the force capability of muscle declines as the velocity of contraction increases.

Joint Angular Velocity


There are three types of muscle action.

Human Strength and Power


Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
Strength-to-Mass Ratio
In sprinting and jumping, the ratio directly reflects an athletes ability to accelerate his or her body. In sports involving weight classification, the ratio helps determine when strength is highest relative to that of other athletes in the weight class.

Human Strength and Power


Biomechanical Factors in Human Strength
Body Size
As body size increases, body mass increases more rapidly than does muscle strength. Given constant body proportions, the smaller athlete has a higher strength-to-mass ratio than does the larger athlete.

Sources of Resistance
Gravity
Weight is horizontally closer to the joint it exerts less resistive force (torque) Weight is horizontally further from the joint it exerts more resistive force 9.8 m/s

Section Outline
Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction
Gravity
Applications to Resistance Training Weight-Stack Machines

Inertia Friction Fluid Resistance Elasticity Negative Work and Power

Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction


Gravity
Applications to Resistance Training
When the weight is horizontally closer to the joint, it exerts less resistive torque. When the weight is horizontally farther from a joint, it exerts more resistive torque.

Weight-Stack Machines
Gravity is the source of resistance, but machines provide increased control over the direction and pattern of resistance.

Cam-Based Weight-Stack Machines


Figure 4.14 (next slide)
In cam-based weight-stack machines, the moment arm (M) of the weight stack (horizontal distance from the chain to the cam pivot point) varies during the exercise movement. When the cam is rotated in the direction shown from position 1 to position 2, the moment arm of the weights, and thus the resistive torque, increases.

Figure 4.14

Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction


Inertia
When a weight is held in a static position or when it is moved at a constant velocity, it exerts constant resistance only in the downward direction. However, upward or lateral acceleration of the weight requires additional force.

Friction
Friction is the resistive force encountered when one attempts to move an object while it is pressed against another object.

Sources of Resistance to Muscle Contraction


Fluid Resistance
Fluid resistance is the resistive force encountered by an object moving through a fluid (liquid or gas), or by a fluid moving past or around an object or through an orifice.

Elasticity
The more an elastic component is stretched, the greater the resistance.

Negative Work and Power


Negative work refers to work performed on, rather than by, a muscle. The rate at which the repetitions are performed determines the power output.

Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training


Back
Back Injury Intra-Abdominal Pressure and Lifting Belts

Shoulders Knees

Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training


Back
Back Injury
The lower back is particularly vulnerable. Resistance training exercises should generally be performed with the lower back in a moderately arched position.

Intra-Abdominal Pressure and Lifting Belts


The fluid ball aids in supporting the vertebral column during resistance training. Weightlifting belts are probably effective in improving safety. Follow conservative recommendations.

Fluid Ball
Figure 4.15 (next slide)
The fluid ball resulting from contraction of the deep abdominal muscles and the diaphragm

Figure 4.15

Key Term
Valsalva maneuver: The glottis is closed, thus keeping air from escaping the lungs, and the muscles of the abdomen and rib cage contract, creating rigid compartments of liquid in the lower torso and air in the upper torso.

Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training


Shoulders
The shoulder is prone to injury during weight training because of its structure and the forces to which it is subjected. Warm up with relatively light weights. Follow a program that exercises the shoulders in a balanced way. Exercise at a controlled speed.

Knees
The knee is prone to injury because of its location between two long levers. Minimize the use of wraps.

Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training


How Can Athletes Reduce the Risk of Resistance Training Injuries?
Perform one or more warm-up sets with relatively light weights, particularly for exercises that involve extensive use of the shoulder or knee. Perform basic exercises through a full ROM. Use relatively light weights when introducing new exercises or resuming training after a layoff of two or more weeks. Do not ignore pain in or around the joints. (continued)

Joint Biomechanics: Concerns in Resistance Training


How Can Athletes Reduce the Risk of Resistance Training Injuries? (continued)
Never attempt lifting maximal loads without proper preparation, which includes technique instruction in the exercise movement and practice with lighter weights. Performing several variations of an exercise results in more complete muscle development and joint stability. Take care when incorporating plyometric drills into a training program.

Movement Analysis and Exercise Prescription

Major Body Movements


Figure 4.16 (next two slides)
Planes of movement are relative to the body in the anatomical position unless otherwise stated. Common exercises that provide resistance to the movements and related sport activities are listed.

Figure 4.16

Reprinted, by permission, from Harman, Johnson, and Frykman, 1992.

Figure 4.16 (continued)

Reprinted, by permission, from Harman, Johnson, and Frykman, 1992.

Key Point
Specificity is a major consideration when one is designing an exercise program to improve performance in a particular sport activity. The sport movement must be analyzed qualitatively or quantitatively to determine the specific joint movements that contribute to the whole-body movement. Exercises that use similar joint movements are then emphasized in the resistance training program.

General Safety Tips


Warm up Lift through a full range of motion Use light weight with new exercises Do not ignore pain Do not attempt maximal lifts without proper preparation Post Work out icing can be effective Avoid bouncing

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