A presentation by

Muhammad Suleman Bahca

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Introduction
The current study focuses the siltation problem in Tarbela reservoir. Siltation is caused by the gradual deposition of the silt transported by the river upstream. Tarbela reservoir is a major source of Pakistan in terms of Electricity production and irrigation supplies. Tarbela dam was constructed in 1974 but now the Siltation has reached a stage where major problems have occurred which have to be dealt early.
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Objectives
To study the current prevailing situation of Siltation in Tarbela reservoir. To study the annual deposition rate of sedimentation in Tarbela reservoir. To study various impacts of Siltation on the reservoir. To check out the possible remedial measures to minimize the effects of Siltation in Tarbela reservoir.

Tarbela Reservoir
Tarbela is one of the worlds greatest water resources development project built on the river Indus It is located about 100 km North West of Islamabad The construction work on Tarbela Dam was started in 1968 and all the civil works were completed in 1974. Salient features of the Project are given in Table in the following slides.
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Characteristics Location Completion year Length of the main dam Reservoir length Reservoir area

Values Distt. Haripur, River Indus 1968 2744m 97km 260km2

Maximum depth
Dam height Gross storage Live storage Dead storage Mean Annual inflow

137m
148m 14.34 BCM 11.95 BCM 2.39 BCM 79 BCM
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Maximum gross capacity level Actual minimum operating level Minimum reservoir level in 2006

472m 396m 417

Capacity below min. reservoir level 1.55 x 109 m3 Hydro power capacity Electrical energy generation Number of tunnels for electricity Number of tunnels for irrigation Tunnels diameter (constant) 3478MW 14.8 GWh yr-1 3 2 13.7m
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Purpose of Tarbela Reservoir

To provide an 11.5 billion cubic metres (bcm) storage dam on River Indus in order to partly replace the water of eastern rivers ceded to India, and provide additional supplies during the low flow period to facilitate further development of irrigated agriculture. To increase food production to achieve self sufficiency, especially in wheat.

To generate cheap hydropower through staged development of 2100 MW capacity.

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Siltation
Siltation or sedimentation is a process of gradual deposition or accumulation of silt in the water bodies i.e. Streams, Reservoirs (Dams). Indus River is one of the largest sediment producing rivers in the world. The main source of sediment is from the glacial landscape and erosion from steep sided barren slopes. The predicted rate of sediment inflow was 0.294 bcm per year meaning that the dam would silt up to 90% capacity in 50 years

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Siltation contn
In practice, the actual sediment inflow rate has been significantly lower than predicted, with an average rate of 0.106 bcm, i.e. 36% of the predicted inflow rate. The useful life of the dam is now considered to be 85 years. Average annual sediment deposit Sediment volume up to 2006 0.134 x 109 m3 4.23 x 109 m3

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Sedimentation Process
The drainage area of Indus at Tarbela Dam is 169,600 km2out of which 10,400 km2 lies immediately above Tarbela Dam, falls in the active monsoon zone with annual precipitation range of 800-1500 mm. Additional 7700 km2 located further northward is also exposed to the receding effects of monsoon rains annually averaging 600 to 1200 mm. The bulk of Indus drainage area, 94% of total catchment area, lies outside the monsoon belt. The northern areas generally receive scanty winter rains and precipitation largely in the form of snow. The moving glaciers crush rocks on their way and leave behind a lot of sediments when they melt which is carried by the river due to steep gradient.
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S.Proess contin
The velocity of the inflows containing the sediment decreases upon entering Tarbela reservoir, which reduces the sediment carrying capacity of the river water. The coarse sediment tends to deposit in the upper reaches of the reservoir, while the finer particles travel downstream towards the dam and settle in the reservoir. Young geological formations of erodible nature in the Indus catchment are also responsible for higher sediment yield. Sediment carried by Indus is deposited in the reservoir at an annual rate of about 200 million tons, corresponding to about 98 % of the sediment inflow. More than up to 80% of the sediment load is transported in the reservoir during the months of July and August.
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Composition of the Deposits

The average composition of the deposits determined from samples collected from Tarbela reservoir is 28% of sand 55% of silt and 17% of clay

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Current status
The predicted rate of sediment inflow was 0.294 billion m3 annually. but the actual sediment inflow rate has been significantly lower with an average rate of 0.106 billion m3 which is 36% of the predicted rate. one aspect of the sediment deposition which was however not expected so early is the rapid advancement of the sediment delta front which is 10.6 km from the dam in 2006. This endangers all the low level outlets including the power station which could be blocked by the liquefaction of the sediment under the severe earthquake. The minimum reservoir drawdown level was raised from initial 396 m to 417 m until 2006.
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 The capacity of reservoir is decreasing due to this heavy sediment load. The remaining storage capacity calculated from hydrographic survey 2005 is given in the table below
Reservoir Capacity Gross Storage Live Storage Dead Storage Initial (1974) BCM 14.344 11.948 2.395 Year 2005 BCM 10.295 8.695 1.598 Reduction % 28.23 27.22 33.30

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Problems Encountered due to Siltation of Tarbela Reservoir

A loss of live storage, which is causing gradual reduction in the regulated yield of reservoir. This in turn would result in reduction in water availability for the agriculture in downstream mainly Punjab and Sindh. The physical effect of sediment, which includes the risk of clogging of low level tunnel outlet particularly in a seismic activity, the erosive action of sediment-laden water on outlet concrete structures and Power turbines will result in exorbitant maintenance costs. Due to low storage available in the reservoir, chances of flood situation also increase. Sedimentation can also affect the aquatic fauna, mainly fisheries.
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Preserving Reservoir Capacity

The most desirable method for controlling reservoir sedimentation is probably by reducing soil loss and erosion from the reservoir watershed. Can be achieved by reducing sediment inflow through soil conservation, watershed management, Gully control, vegetative screens building check dams. Problem of having difficult to implement
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Watershed Management
Poor or improper land use and management are the major contributing factors to reservoir sedimentation. The need for watershed management to reduce sediment input into the reservoirs is suggested widely. Measures like strip cropping, forestation, crop rotation, terracing, and gully control can significantly reduce the soil loss.

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Check Dams
Building debris dams or check dams (or trap dams) as another way of reducing sediment inflow into the reservoirs It can control the flow of coarse sediments into the reservoir. These deposits can be flushed or bypassed via diversion tunnels or pipes downstream of the main reservoir dam during high flows, or periodically cleaned during low flows when the deposits are exposed.
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 Reduction of sediment influx either by watershed management or by construction of check dams in the upper catchment is impractical as about 90% of total runoff is dominated by snow / glacier melt. Nothing can be done at this attitude on the steep mountains. Most of the catchment area is out of the monsoon zone. Water shed Management is being implemented by the NWFP Forest Department up to Besham and it has very little effect. Diamer Basha Dam shall have some positive impact as it would enhance its life.

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Venting Density Currents

Density currents are caused by the difference in density of the relatively cleaner reservoir water and the sediment-laden incoming stream flow. Density differences can be generated either by the high concentrations of suspended sediment particles in the incoming stream flow, or by the temperature differences between the stream flow and the reservoir waters.

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Flood Flushing
Frequent flushing of sediments is done during the high-inflow season The purpose of regulating the flows during the flood season is to release as much sediment as possible from the reservoir. This takes advantage of the silt-carrying capacity of floodwaters in the reservoir and in the downstream reaches of the river. This operation greatly reduces sediment entrapment in the reservoir.
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Drawdown Flushing
Drawdown flushing is different from venting density currents and flood flushing. It is implemented to evacuate the sediments that have already been deposited in the reservoir. Drawdown (or hydraulic) flushing involves the release of water from a reservoir through a lowlevel outlet, while reducing the pool to an allowable minimum level. Depends on the reservoir topography, outlet capacity and elevation, characteristics of the incoming sediment material, operation of the reservoir, and duration of the flushing operation.

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 In the case of Tarbela reservoir Evacuation of 200 million tons of yearly sediments by flushing through four low level high capacity outlets from the left bank has been proposed by the consultants. This option would comprise four 12 m diameter tunnels driven through the left abutment. WAPDA considers the under water dyke and the four tunnels an unprecedented option, the example of which does not exist else where in the World. Moreover, this option would in no time adversely affect the downstream hydropower Project of Ghazi Barotha and Chashma and kill them much earlier.

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Sediment Dredging
Dredging is an Excavation activity or operation usually carried out at least partly underwater, in shallow seas or fresh water areas with the purpose of gathering up bottom sediments and disposing of them at a different location. One of the most popular methods in dealing with reservoir sedimentation It is the most controversial issue in reservoir storage rehabilitation. It has both environmental benefits and hazards. One of the major environmental concerns is that dredging re suspends sediments which may release toxic substances. If the removed sediments contain hazardous material, disposal of the dredged material may be a major problem.
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 The dredging option in case of Tarbela reservoir is not only prohibitive in cost but also is without any precedence and impractical. Any dredging proposal to be effective must provide for removal and disposal of 550,000 tons of sediments every day. Realistically, the target is unattainable even if hundred of dredgers and ancillary equipment are deployed over the reservoir stretch of 50 Sq. Km. to work round the clock.

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Heightening of the dam

Heightening the dam can also be considered but it will only increase in the live storage equal to few years of sediment inflow. There are some shortcomings attached to this method like: The gates of the service and auxiliary spillways would then also be modified. The stability of the dam must also be studied before taking out the process.

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Replacement of existing dam by another

It is the last option left when the production and benefits from the dam will become less than the management cost of the project. But as our country is in a crucial financial position, this option should be kept under the pillow.

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Conclusions
Reservoir capacity at Tarbela is being lost at the rate of about 0.132 BCM per year. The predicted rate of sediment inflow in the reservoir was 0.294 billion m3 annually which envisages that the sediment load will fill up the capacity of Tarbela reservoir up to 90% in 50 years. After that, the dam will continue to provide only about 1.2 billion m3 of live storage. The usable life of the dam is considered to be 85 years now but the usable storage will gradually decline over this time. Flushing of sediments at Tarbela through the existing tunnels during low reservoir level is on the average 7% of total incoming sediment. The remedial action in terms of dredging & excavation and disposal of upstream deposits are not economical. Studies for sediment flushing with the existing outlets should continue at Tarbela.
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Muhammad Suleman Bacha

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