Ferrous Alloys Eutectoid Portion of Fe-C Diagram

Low Carbon Steel

Greatest bulk tonnage of steel produced and consumed Never heat-treated to attain a martensitic structure Preferred material for welding applications Grain size of low carbon steels can be controlled by composition or use of fine-grain practice
Hot Working reduces coarse grain structure Lower finishing temperature (around A1) results in a related lower temperature or recrystallization, and therefore a finer grain size. Normalized

Porcelain Enameled Ware

Steel sheet are formed to desired strength Coated with a siliceous frit and heated to the temperature needed to melt the frit to a glossy state Two coats, a ground coat and a finish coat with a pigment for color.

Automobile Body Stock

Combination of low yield point and high tensile strength is desirable Need for a considerable degree of uniform elongation (between yield and tensile). A high work-hardening rate results in delay of the localized necking which precedes fracture. Ability to make a deep hemispherical indentation (3/4 diam.) before fracture Moderately fine grain size. Too fine impairs forming; too coarse causes orange-peel defect Low yield-point elongation. High yield point elongation leads to Luder bands of localized elongation

Tin Plate
Ordinarily hot- and then cold-rolled to finished gage Process Annealed Temper-rolled (slight reduction of 0.5 - 1.5% cold-rolling) Electrolytically plated with tin

Heavy Steel Plates for Ships and Tanks

Although moderate in yield and tensile strength, does have proper combination of strength, ductility, toughness, and weldability Carbon content rarely above 0.25% (reduces toughness and weldability) and rarely below 0.15% Manganese is added to increase yield and tensile strength without reducing ductility Copper sometimes added to improve corrosion resistance Given no heat treatment after hot rolling and thus develop mechanical properties as a result of control of composition and grain size

Structural Shapes and Pipes

Similar composition for plate products Microalloyed Steels - small additions of alloy element (Nb, V, and Ti), good weldability and high strength

Low-Alloy High Strength Steel

Appreciable alloy content, up to 10%, and are often quenched and tempered to give high levels of both strength and impact toughness Alloy-element selection is based on promoting the formation of martensite or bainite on quenching over a range of section thicknesses with good toughness developed by tempering at relatively high temperatures Cr and Mo additions improve high temperature creep and corrosion resistance (i.e. boilers) Ni additions improves cryogenic temperature toughness. (Pressure vessels for transportation of liquidified propane) Because of alloying, weldability decreases

Welding

Welding Mild Steel Metallurgical Considerations

The weld material should be low in gas content and low in oxides or carbon to avoid gas liberation during weld pool solidification Weld metal will solidify very rapidly and will therefore be very fine grain Metal adjacent to the liquid will be heated into the austenitic state and usually will be cooled very rapidly by adjacent cold metal. Quenching effect on austenitized metal will result in brittle martensite unless carbon content is low or the hardenability is low Zone adjacent to austenitized metal which has been heated to just below A1 temperature. For initially cold-rolled steel, this will be annealed and locally softened zone subject to strain aging and (if the steel is hardened) tempering

Potential Weld Defects

Hot Cracking - caused by too high sulfur and/or carbon content or inappropriate alloycontent level. Cold Cracking - occurs below 300oC only when (1) hydrogen gas, (2) restrain, and (3) a hard martensite microstructure is present
The higher the strength and the alloy (or carbon) content of a steel, the more likely it is to cold crack on welding

Carburizing of Low-Carbon Steels

If a hard steel surface is desired, a high-carbon steel can be used or a much cheaper low-carbon can be heated in a carbonaceous atmosphere to increase the carbon content of the surface Factors Affecting Case Depth
Temperature and Time: Diffusion controlled mechanism Carbon Content: Lower carbon content produces higher concentration gradients, therefore, greater ability to case harden

Carburized parts are practically always quenched Other process include Nitriding, Oxide Coating, and Titanium Nitride

Surface Treatments

Medium Carbon Steels

Often called engineering alloy steels
fractional additions of alloying elements to improved steels material properties

Widely used for machine parts and high strength structural component applications Generally heated treated in three distinct operations
convert to austenite quench to form martensite temper quenched steel to a desired property

Hardenability
Defined as the depth of useful hardness which can be produced for a given quenching condition Does NOT relate to the degree of hardness produced If hardenability is large
relatively large diameter steel will be fully martensitic steel is termed deep-hardening

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram

Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagram

Jominy Hardenability Test

Heat sample in g region Remove sample, place in jig Immediately quench one end with stream of water at a specific temperature and flow rate. Effectively, one end is water quenched and the other end normalized

Jominy Hardenability Test

Flat is ground along the side of the cylinder and hardness measurements are taken along its length

Critical Diameter
quenching a series of long round bars of increasing diameter in the quench medium of interest. Bars sectioned transversely in the center Hardness profile obtained across the diameter Bar with the center hardness just corresponding to the critical level of hardening (50% martensite - 50% pearlite) is found. Critical-diameter Do bar for the steel in that quench

Ideal Critical Diameter

Hardness profiles can also be developed to characterize the quenchant, H value.
1 to 5 for brine 0.8 to 2 for water 0.1 to 0.8 for oil 0.01 to 0.05 for air

Can then find ideal critical diameter More useful, can calculate actual critical diameter based on charts for alloying elements and H value Higher Di, better hardenability

Hardenability Alloying Elements

Hardenability Alloying Elements

Hardenability Alloying Elements

Hardenability Alloying Elements

1040: 0.5% Mn, 0.2% Si 2340: 3.0% Ni

4140: 0.80% Mn, 0.8% Cr, 0.25% Mo 4340: 0.8% Mn, 1.7% Ni, 0.8% Cr, 0.3% Mo

Hardenable Carbon Steels Examples

At times a martensitic surface may be desired, for wear resistance, with a fine ferritic-pearlitic core structure for toughness Can heat complete part followed by quenching Can also be obtained by heating only surface layers of a thicker section by using highfrequency induction or intense flame Not only can the surface alone be heated for hardening; it is possible to heat just a part of any assembly (bearing section of crankshaft) Combination of quenching mediums; water followed by oil (wrenches, pliers, etc.)

Hardenable Carbon Steels Examples

Maximum martensitic hardness determined by carbon content To assure this, normalize to obtain a fine initial carbide structure After quenching of a carbon steel, the structure must be tempered High thermal stresses developed, ultimate hardness generally not required for most service parts

Tempering Medium Carbon Steels

1340: 1.7% Mn 2340: 3.0% Ni

5140: 1.0% Cr 4340: 1.7% Ni, 0.8% Cr, 0.3% Mo