Chapter 21
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Radioactivity
_________________unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously emit particles, electromagnetic radiation (EMR), or both
________________________results from bombarding nuclei with neutrons, protons, or other nuclei
A ZX electron 0b 0e or -1 -1
Element Symbol
proton 1p 1H or 1 1
neutron 1n 0
positron 0b 0e or +1 +1
a particle 4He 4a or 2 2
A Z
21.1
0 +1e
and
0b +1
0e +1
0b +1
represents an electron in or from an atomic orbital represents an electron that is physically identical to an electron in or from an atomic orbital, but this electron comes from the decay of a neutron to a proton and an electronit is also called a beta particle or ray
p.673
21.1
21.1
+1 0n
138 55 Cs
96 37 Rb
+ 21 0n
+1 0n
138 55 Cs
96 37 Rb
+ 21 0n
21.1
92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0
212Po
decays by alpha emission. Write the balanced nuclear equation for the decay of 212Po.
4a He or alpha particle - 4 2 2 212Po 84 4He 2
+A ZX
212 = 4 + A 84 = 2 + Z
212Po 84 4He 2
Ex 21.1, p.673
21.1
40Ca 20
Positron decay
11C 6 38 19K 11B 5 0b + n ++1 0b + n ++1 1p 1 1n 0
38Ar 18
21.2
+n +n
0e + -1
55Mn 25 1p 1
+n
Alpha decay
212Po 84 4He 2
+ 208 82Pb
Spontaneous fission
252Cf 98 1n 2125 In + 2 49 0
21.2
Nuclear Stability
Certain numbers of neutrons and protons are extra stable n or p = 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126 Like extra stable numbers of electrons in noble gases (e = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54 and 86)
Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are more stable than those with odd numbers of neutron and protons
All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher than 83 are radioactive
All isotopes of Tc and Pm are radioactive
Number of Stable Isotopes with Even and Odd Numbers of Protons and Neutrons
21.2
______________________ is the energy required to break up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons. BE is an indication of the stability of a nucleus. In order to compare nuclei of two different isotopes/elements, we must take into account the fact that they have different numbers of _________. For this reason, nuclear binding energy per nucleon is more useful.
p.676
21.2
Mass Defect
The difference between the ________________ of an atom and the ________________ of the masses of protons, neutrons, and electrons
What does the mass defect tell us? How much mass was changed to energy in the formation of the atom.
p.676
note
nuclear stability
21.2
p.678
Which element has the greatest net attractive forces among its nucleons? (graph) Radioactivity: unstable nuclei spontaneously emit particles, electromagnetic radiation (EMR), or both Main types of radioactivity:
particles (He2+) particles (e-) rays (short-wavelength emr) positron emission electron capture
Often it involves a multi-step sequence, a series. and all obey first-order kinetics.
daughter rate = lN
DN rate = Dt
DN = lN Dt
N = N0exp(-lt) lnN = lnN0 - lt
ln2 l = t
21.3
l is the first order rate constant and N is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time t
p.679f
ln [N]
[N]
21.3
Radiometric Assumptions The method measures the parent/daughter ratio of the elements. 1. The system must initially contain none of ____________________________________.
Radiocarbon Dating
14N 7 14C 6 1n +0 14N 7 14C 6
0b + n + -1
Uranium-238 Dating
238U 92 206Pb 82 0 +4 2a + 6-1 b
Potassium-40 Dating
40 19K 0e +-1 40Ar 18
Nuclear Transmutation
14N 7
4a +2
17O 8
+1 p 1
1n +0
27Al 13
4a +2
30P 15
14N 7
1p +1
11C 6
+4 a 2
p.683
21.4
Nuclear Transmutation
The Transuranium Elements
21.4
Nuclear Fission
235U 92
1n +0
90Sr 38
1n + Energy + 143 Xe + 3 0 54
Energy = 3.3 x 10-11J per 235U = 2.0 x 1013 J per mole 235U Combustion of 1 ton of coal = 5 x 107 J
p.685f
21.5
Nuclear Fission
Representative fission reaction
235U 92 1n +0 90Sr 38 1n + Energy + 143 Xe + 3 0 54
p.686
21.5
Nuclear Fission
A ________________________ is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions.
The minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is the ________________________.
Non-critical
Critical
21.5
Nuclear Fission
21.5
Nuclear Fission
35,000 tons SO2 4.5 x 106 tons CO2
21.5
Nuclear Fission
21.5
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Reaction 2 2 3 1 1 H + 1H 1 H + 1H
2H 1 3H +1 4He 2
Energy Released
6.3 x 10-13 J
2.8 x 10-12 J 3.6 x 10-12 J
+1 0n
6Li 3
2H +1
4He 2
21.6
Radioisotopes in Medicine
99mTc,
1 rem = 1 rad x Q
Average Yearly Radiation Doses for Americans
21.6
p.695f