Abrasive Machining

Chips are formed by abrasive tools

A process that capable of producing very well controlledsmooth-surfaces and also very tight tolerances

Why a smooth surface?

Reduction in Friction Heat - Bearings Reduction in Wear Bushings/Bearings Appearance Car Body, Furniture Clearance Disk Head Sharpness Cutting Tools

How do we get a smooth surface?

Remove Material Abrasive Machining Flatten Burnishing Fill in Voids Add material, Paint, Finish, Wax

ABRASIVE MACHINING

BONDED

LOOSE

IMPACT

ABRASIVE FLOW MACHINING

GRINDING HONING COATED ABRASIVES

LAPPING ULTRASONIC MACHINING BARREL FINISHING BUFFING POLISHING

GRIT BLASTING HYDROHONING WATER JET CUTTING ABRASIVE JET CUTTING

DeGarmos Materials and Processes in Mnufacturing

Abrasives an abrasive is a hard material that can cut or abrade other substances Abrasives can be natural or manmade.
Natural include: Sand stone Emery Diamond Garnet Quartz Man made : Artificial abrasives date from 1891, when silicon carbide (SiC) was first produced Conventional Abrasives a. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) b. Silicon carbide (SiC) Superabrasives c. Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN) d. Diamond

Typical Arithmetic Average Roughness

Ref: Fig. 8.35, Kalpakjian. Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials 2nd Ed, Addison-Wesley 1991.

Abrasive Requirements High hardness at room & elevated temperure Controlled toughness or rather ease of fracture, allows fracture to occur under imposed mechanical and thermal stresses Low adhesion to the workpiece of material Chemical stability The grains must have a shape that presents several sharp cutting edges

1. Hardness and Temperature

2. Grit
FIGURE 28-6 The cavities or voids between the grains must be large enough to hold all the chips during the cut.

FIGURE 28-7 The grits interact with the surface in three ways: cutting, plowing, and rubbing.

3. Abrasive Grain Size

Grains are separated by mechanical sieving machines. The number of openings per linear inch in the sieve(or screen) through which the particles can pass determines the grain size.Typical classifications:
Course, medium, and fine Silicon Carbides range from 2-240 in size Aluminum Oxides range from 4-240 in size

FIGURE 28-3 Typical screens for sifting abrasives into sizes. (Courtesy of Carborundum Company.)

Surface Finish vs Grit Size Abrasive particles can be:

A free slurry Adhered to resin on a belt Close packed into wheels or stones held together by a bonding agent.

FIGURE 28-4 MRR and surface finish versus grit size.

Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide and SiliconCarbide Bonded Abrasives

Figure 9.4a Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and siliconcarbide bonded abrasives.

Standard Marking System for Cubic Boron Nitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives

Figure 9.4b Standard marking system for cubic boron nitride and diamond bonded abrasives.

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General Characteristics of Abrasive Machining Processes and Machines

Variables in Surface Grinding

TABLE

9.2 Typical ranges of speeds and feeds for abrasive processes.

FIGURE 9.7 Variables in surface grinding. In actual grinding, the wheel depth of cut d, and contact length, l, are much smaller than the wheel diameter, D. The dimension t is called the grain depth of cut.

Chip Formation

FIGURE 9.8 Chip formation and plowing of the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain.

FIGURE 9.9 Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain. Note the negative rake angle, the small shear angle, and the wear flat on the grain.

Grinding Process
Grain force ((v/V)(d/D))(material strength) Temperature rise D1/4d3/4(V/v)1/2 Effects caused by grinding temperature increase: Sparks Tempering Burning Heat Checking

Cylindrical Grinding
Cylindrical grinding is used to produce external cylindrical surfaces In cylindrical grinding the workpiece is mounted and rotated on a longitudinal axis, the grinding wheel rotate in the same axis, but in opposite directions. With long workpieces, the workpiece typically is moved relative to the wheel. With smaller high production parts, a chuck-type external grinder is used, and the wheel moves relative to the workpiece.

Center/Roll Type

Centerless Grinding
In centerless grinding the workpiece can be ground internally or externally without requiring the material to be mounted in a center or chuck. The workpiece rests between two wheels, one providing the grinding and the other providing regulation of the grinding speed.

Centerless Grinding

Advantages of Centerless Grinding Centerless grinding has several important advantages:

1. It is very rapid; infeed centerless grinding is almost continuous. 2. Very little skill is required of the operator. 3. It can often be made automatic (single-cycle automatic). 4. Where the cutting occurs, the work is fully supported by the work rest and the regulating wheel.This permits heavy cuts to be made. 5. Because there is no distortion of the workpiece, accurate size control is easily achieved. 6. Large grinding wheels can be used, thereby minimizing wheel wear.

Disadvantages of Centerless Grinding

The major disadvantages are as follows:

1. Special machines are required that can do no other type of work. 2. The work must be roundno flats, such as keyways, can be present. 3. Its use on work having more than one diameter or on curved parts is limited. 4. In grinding tubes, there is no guarantee that the OD and Internal Diameter (ID) are concentric.

Surface Grinding
Surface Grinding Machines are used to produce flat surfaces. The four basic types are: 1. Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table 2. Vertical spindle and reciprocating table 3. Horizontal spindle and rotary table 4. Vertical spindle and rotary table

FIGURE 28-23 Surface B grinding: (a) horizontal surface grinding and reciprocating table; (b) vertical spindle with reciprocating table; (c) and (d) both horizontal- and verticalspindle machines can have rotary tables. (Courtesy of Carborundum Company.)

Creep-Feed Grinding

Internal Grinding

Menurut Konstruksinya : 1. Jenis Chucking, yaitu roda diputar dalam posisi tetap sementara benda kerja diputar dan digeser majumundur secara pelan 2. Jenis Planetary, yaitu gerinda ini digunakan pada benda kerjayang sulit diputar 3. Jenis Centerless, benda diputar pada diameter luar rol yang digerakkan sehingga memungkinkan untuk menggerinda lubang yang benar-benar kosentris dengan diameter luar

Tool Grinding
Mills cutters, reams, and single point tools require sophisticated grinding provided by a tool grinder that differs from a universal cylindrical center-type grinder by:
1. The headstock is not motorized. 2. The headstock can be swiveled about a horizontal as well as a vertical axis. 3. The wheelhead can be raised and lowered and can be swiveled through at 360 rotation about a vertical axis. 4. All table motions are manual. No power feeds being provided.

FIGURE 28-24 Three typical setups for grinding single- and multiple-edge tools on a universal tool and cutter grinder. (a) Singlepoint tool is held in a device that permits all possible angles to be ground. (b) Edges of a large hand reamer are being ground. (c) Milling cutter is sharpened with a cupped grinding wheel.

Other Grinding Tools

Mounted Wheels and Points are small tools used in finishing work.
Typically mounted on portable high speed chucks RPMs to 100,000 depending upon diamter

Coated Abrasives
Come in disk, sheets, rolls, belts, etc. Consist of abrasives glued to a cloth or paper backing Designed to be easily replaced when dull or the loaded

Grinding Ratio
G = Volume of material removed Volume of wheel wear Vary greatly (2-200 or higher) depending on the type of wheel, grinding fluid, and process parameters Higher forces decrease the grinding ratio

Grinding
Design Considerations: Design parts so that they can be held securely Avoid interrupted surfaces if high dimensional accuracy is required because they can cause vibrations Ensure cylindrical parts are balanced and thick enough to minimize deflections Short pieces may be difficult to grind accurately in centerless grinding because of limited support by the blade Parts requiring high accuracy form grinding should be kept simple to prevent frequent wheel dressing Avoid small deep or blind holes or include a relief

Grinding Wheel Truing and Dressing

Grinding wheels lose their geomtry with use, truing restores the original shape. Truing grinds a small amount of material to expose new grinding media, and new cutting edges on worn glazed grains. As grinding wheels are used then tend to become loaded with lodged metal chips in the cavities. Dressing is used to remove the lodged metal chips.

Truing Methods

FIGURE 28-12 Truing methods for restoring grinding geometry include nibs, rolls, disks, cups, and blocks.

Dressing

FIGURE 28-13 Schematic arrangement of stick dressing versus truing.

Crush Dressing
FIGURE 28-14 Continuous crush roll dressing and truing of a grinding wheel (formtruing and dressing throughout the process rather than between cycles) doing plunge cut grinding on a cylinder held between centers.

Coolant Delivery

FIGURE 28-18 Coolant delivery system for optimum CBN grinding. (Source: Production Grinding with CBN, M. P. Hitchiner, CBN Grinding Systems Manager, Universal Beck, Romulus, MI, Machining Technology, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1991.) improper

General Recommendations for Grinding Fluids

TABLE 9.5 Material Grinding fluid Aluminum E, EP Copper CSN, E, MO FO Magnesium D, MO Nickel CSN, EP Refractory metals EP Steels CSN, E Titanium CSN, E D: dry; E: emulsion; EP: Extreme pressure; CSN: chemicals and synthetics; MO: mineral oil; FO: fatty oil.

Grinding Objectives
Precision Grinding Coarse Grinding Creep-feed Grinding High Efficiency Deep Grinding

Coated Abrasives
Coated Abrasives Abrasive grains are deposited on flexible backing; they are more pointed than those in grinding wheels

Common examples: sandpaper, emery

Coated Abrasives

FIGURE 28-26 Belt composition for coated abrasives (top).

Coated Abrasives
Belt Grinding Uses coated abrasives in the form of a belt; cutting speeds are about 2500-6000 ft/min Microreplication Abrasives with a pyramid shape are placed in a predetermined regular pattern on the belt

Coated Abrasive Machines

FIGURE 28-26 Platen grinder and examples of belts and disks for abrasive machining.

Honing
Honing is used to produce is used to remove small amounts of material to produce an exacting size and surface finish. Most common application is to produce precise surface finish in engine cylinder walls and hydraulic cylinder fabrication Rotation and axial oscillation is used to produce the desired surface throughout the entire length of the hole. Honing is done with cutting fluids and honing stones, special grinding stones with 80-600 grit with the addition of additives to modify the cutting

Honing

Hole defects correctible by honing

Cylindrical Honing
FIGURE 28-27 Schematic of honing head showing the manner in which the stones are held. The rotary and oscillatory motions combine to produce a crosshatched lay pattern. Typical values for Vc and Ps are given below.

Superfinishing
Superfinishing is a variation of honing that is typically used on flat surfaces. The process is:
1. Very light, controlled pressure, 10 to 40 psi 2. Rapid (over 400 cycles per minute), short strokesless than 1/4 in. 3. Stroke paths controlled so that a single grit never traverses the same path twice 4. Copious amounts of low-viscosity lubricantcoolant flooded over the work surface

Superfinishing
FIGURE 28-28 In superfinishing and honing, a film of lubricant is established between the work and the abrasive stone as the work becomes smoother.

Superfinishing of a Cylindrical Part

FIGURE 9.22 Schematic illustration of the superfinishing process for a cylindrical part: (a) cylindrical microhoning; (b) centerless microhoning.

Abrasive-Flow Machining
Figure 9.28 Schematic illustration of abrasive flow machining to deburr a turbine impeller. The arrows indicate movement of the abrasive media. Note the special fixture, which is usually different for each part design. Source: Extrude Hone Corp.

Lapping
Used to enhance surface finish and dimensional accuracy of flat or cylindrical surfaces; tolerances are on the order of .0004 mm; surface finish can be as smooth as .025-.1 m; Abrasive particles are embedded in the lap or carried in a slurry Pressures range from 7-140 kPa depending on workpiece hardness

Figure 9.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.

Example of a lapping machine

Examples of Lapped Parts

The workpieces made of aluminum oxide were rings having 0.5 ID, 0.8 OD and 0.2 thickness. Its high hardness promotes a series of applications in mechanical engineering, such as bearings and seals. Initial Ra = 0.65 m Final Ra (after lapping) = 0.2 m

Free Abrasives
There are various forms of free abrasive machining Ultrasonic Abrasives are mixed in a slurry, ultrasonic transducers provide the mechanical agitation to remove the material Waterjet cutting (WJC) Water at 60,000 psi and 3000 ft/s erode the material Abrasive Waterjet Cutting (AWC) Abrasives are added to a Waterjet to improve the efficiency Abrasive Jet Cutting (AJC) Abrasives are mixed in a high velocity air stream at 1000 ft/s