Refer figure 2-2

Basic Twist Drill Geometry

Helix and
clearance 2π R
tan δ O =
angles L
2π r
tan δ =
L
r
tan δ = tan δ O
R

where cos ω
ω=sin-1(W/r) web tan Cl = ( tan ClO − sin ω O . cot p ) + sin ω . cot p
angle at a point cos ω O
on the lip

04/29/09 1
 Drill Point Specification

Typical • D - nominal drill diameter

features
identified in • 2W - web thickness
handbooks and
standards
• δO - helix angle at outer corner
• ClO - lip clearance angle at outer
corner
• 2p - point angle (of the lips)
• ψ - chisel edge angle

04/29/09 2
Refer figure 2-3

Circumferential Clearance
Require hc>0
and Clc>0°
hC hC
for rc<r<=R tan ClC = =
r.Ω C r ( Ω S + ω )
As Ωc and Ωco hC
tan ClCO =
R( Ω S + ω O )
approach zero,
Clc and Clco
approach Cl
and Clo hCO hCO
tan ClCO = ==
R( Ω SO + ω O ) R.Ω CO

04/29/09 3
Refer figure 2-4

Development of Flute Profile 1

Coordinates of a x = r cos ω
point C on the
AB generator at y = − r sin ω
radius r z = r cos ω cot p
Axial
translation of a β
generator A1B1 δz = L = β R cot δ O
2π
rotated by β

Coordinates of a x = r cos(ω + β )
point C1 on the y = − r sin(ω + β )
A1B1 generator z = r cos ω cot p − β R cot δ O
at radius r

04/29/09 4
Refer figure 2-4

Development of Flute Profile 2

Rotation for C2
to cross r cos ω cot p tan δ O
β=
reference normal R
plane (z = 0)
 r cos ω cot p tan δ O 
x = r cos ω + 
Coordinates of  R 
point C2 on  r cos ω cot p tan δ O 
y = −r sin  ω + 
A2B2, i.e.  R 
equations for  −1 W r 2
− W 2 

x = r cos sin + cot p tan δ O 
the flute profile  r R 
in a normal  
plane to the  −1 W r 2
− W 2 

y = −r sin sin + cot p tan δ O 
drill axis  r R 
 
z=0

04/29/09 5
Refer figure 2-6
Conical (flank)
grinding is
commonly
mentioned
Point Sharpening
Five independent It can be shown that:
sharpening
2W = function (λ, Cx, Cy)
parameters
θ - semi-cone angle 2p = function(λ, χ, θ)
χ - angle between ψ = function(λ, χ, θ, Cx, Cy)
cone axis and drill
axis Clo = function(λ, χ, θ, Cx, Cy, R)
Cx, Cy - drill location
λ - orientation angle
so that cone and
flank parameters
coincide

04/29/09 6
Refer figure 2-6

Numerical
simulation shows
that low θ causes Setting the Point Grinder
high Clco even whole
flank ground and
small γw and large θ
causes negative Clco
Specifying Clco provides an extra
equation to uniquely specify
the grinder parameters
Given variety of
grinders actually
used, range of
values for features Clco = function(λ, χ, θ, Cx, Cy, R)
for General Purpose
drills & production
variability each drill
behaves as an
individual tool

04/29/09 7
Refer figure 2-7

Covers a wider
range of
The Chinese Standard
diameters than
most “western”
• Besides the usual point features
standards (0.1 ~ being quantified, this standard also
100 mm)
gives recommended values for
other features such as the fluted
land width, the margin width, the
Relates several body clearance and projected
features to
diameter, distance between the heel corners
rather than
just giving a • Extra information allows Clco to be
range (see table
2-2) calculated
04/29/09 8
Refer figure 2-8

From the Chinese Standard

. • Clearer specification of point
features together with Clco
allows θ, χ, λ, Cx and Cy, to be
found for conical grinding

Findings • Up to 25 mm, large variability

in setting values but beyond 25
mm angles are constant and
linear distances proportional to
diameter 04/29/09 9
Refer figure 2-9

Suggested method of Chinese Point Sharpening

conical grinding
found in a Chinese • For all diameters: χ = 45° and
(and Russian)
handbook 13°<θ<15°, Cx =(.07 to .05)D
and Cy, =(1.8 to 1.9)D
Method is
simplified • λ implied to be 0°
• Satisfying 2W yields very small
λ = 0° cannot λ
give straight
lips. • Using these values will not
Generated lips satisfy standards for point
slightly curved.
features (table 2-3)
04/29/09 10
Refer figure 2-10

Cutting Geometry and Action

Apparent “instantaneous” area of cut = D.f/2
At least for some
regions we will VW = V 2 + V f2
have to consider
the dynamic where
geometry; so we
need to know the V = 2πNr
cutting V f = f .N
velocities.
Since Vf << V
in the lip region Vf f .N f
can let Vw = V, tan η = = =
also for some of V 2π N r 2π r
chisel edge
04/29/09 11
Refer figure 2-10

View A in Pfe, the

working plane, Basic Geometry
contains V and
Vf

• In view A, for a point Q on a

lip, can see
–δ
Pre is the
– Cl
working
reference plane
and is the
radial plane
through the
drill axis

04/29/09 12
Refer figure 2-10

Lip Region Geometry - 1

View B is in the • In view B, at point Q on a lip,
normal plane Pn are shown:
at Q
– normal rake and clearance angles
– reference rake and clearance
angles

View C is in the • View C shows the cutting

working
cutting edge
velocity and cutting edge in true
plane, Pse length, hence shows inclination
angle
04/29/09 13
Refer figures 2-10 & 2-11

Lip Region Geometry - 2

x z1
From view A tan δ = and tan Cl =
z x

From projecting x. cos ω

tan α ref =
point Q onto view B z.sin p − x.sin ω cos p
tan δ cos ω
tan α ref =
sin p − tan δ sin ω cos p

From view B α n = α ref − ε

Vw sin ω cos p
tan ε = = tan ω cos p
Vw cos ω
tan δ
tan α n =
sin p
( )
cos ω + sin ω tan ω cos 2 p − tan ω cos p

Substituting
tanα n =
( )
tan δ O r 2 − W 2 sin 2 p − R.W .sin p cos p
for δ and ω R.sin p r 2 − W 2
previous next 04/29/09 14
Refer figures 2-10 & 2-11

Clref found by Lip Region Geometry 3

projecting points
Q and b from x.sin ω − z1 sin p
view A to view B, tan Clref =
x. cos ω
and substituting tan Clref = tan ω cos p − tan Cl sin p secω
for z1

From view B Cln = ε − Clref

tan Cl sin p
tan Cln =
cos ω + tan ω cos p( sin ω cos p − tan Cl sin p )
sin p cos ω tan ClO + cos p sin ( ω − ω O )
tan Cln =
cos ω cos ω O − sin ω cos p( sin p tan ClO − cos p sin ω O )

tan Cln =
( R sin p tan ClO − W cos p ) r 2 − W 2 + W cos p R 2 − W 2
r 2 − W 2 R 2 − W 2 − W cos p( R sin p tan ClO − W cos p )

previous next 04/29/09 15

Refer figures 2-10 & 2-11

Lip Region Geometry 4

Inclination i for
point Q on lips is VW sin ω sin p
shown in view C
sin i =
VW
= sin ω sin p
Cutting action at
lips is a complex W
oblique process = sin p
with variable Vw, αn r
and i

Ambiguity of flank
specification does not
affect lip geometry
previous next 04/29/09 16
Refer figures 2-12 & 2-13

Require detailed
knowledge of flank
geometry & Chisel Edge Geometry
grinding method γW
γ1 = γ 2 =
2
Assume straight line α nst = γ 1
normal to drill axis
Clnst = 90° − γ 2
Cannot ignore Vf
on dynamic angles α ne = −( α n − η )

Below some limit

= −( γ 1 − η )
radius Clne becomes
negative and edge
Clne = Cln − η
acts as an indentor
= (90° − γ 2 ) − η
Inclination very
small
previous next 04/29/09 17
Typical forms of
Forces and Power - empirical
empirical equations. Thrust = C1 f x1 D y1
Given variations in
design & production Torque = C2 f x 2 D y 2
results can be Power = Torque.N / C3 + Thrust.Vf ≈ Torque.N / C3
considered only
approximate.
Power = C2 f x 2 D y 2 N / C3

Cast Iron: Th = C1.f 0.6.D

Tq = C2.f 0.6.D2
Boston & Oxford
(¼” to 1½”)
Steel: Th = C1’.f 0.6.D
Tq = C2’.f 0.78.D1.8
Kronenberg
Tq = C2’.f 0.803.D1.803
previous next 04/29/09 18
 Forces and Power - Empirical
Th K1 f 1− a  1 − 2rc / D 1− a 
Dimensional analysis =  + K ( 2 r / D )  + K ( 2 r / D ) 2

1 + ( 2rc / D )
2 c 3 c
2
D BHN D1+ a a

by Shaw & Oxford
Tq K 3 f 1− a  1 − 2rc / D 2−a 
=  + K ( 2 r / D ) 
3
D BHN D1+ a 1 + ( 2 rc / D ) a 5 c


where u ∝ ( f .D )
a

Assuming a = 0.2
for steel, and Th = 0.195.(BHN).f 0.8.D0.8 + 0.0022.(BHN).D2
testing general or Th = C4.(BHN).f 0.63.D
purpose drills Tq = 0.087.(BHN).f 0.8.D1.8
with 2rc/D =0.18

previous next 04/29/09 19

Refer figure 2-14a

Mechanics of Cutting Approach

- Lip Region 1
τ, rl, β, K1P & K1Q
found from
orthogonal tests and
thin shear zone model δTh j = [( δFQ + δFQe ) cos ε sin p − ( δFR + δFRe )( cos i cos p + sin i sin p sin ε ) ]
δTq j = rj ( δFP + δFPe )

M
Th  = 2∑ δTh j
1
M
Tq  = 2∑ δTq j
1

previous next 04/29/09 20

Refer figure 2-14a

Mechanics of Cutting Approach

- Lip Region 2

Required elemental R cos ω O − W cot (180° − ψ )

δL =
geometry M  sin p

rj = [ R cosωO − ( j − 1 2)δL sin p] 2 + W 2

f sin p cos ε
t=
2

δb = δL cos i

δA = t.δb
previous next 04/29/09 21
 Mechanics of Cutting Approach
- Lip Region 3
τ .δA[ cos( β n − α n ) cos i + tan ηc sin i sin β n ]
δFP =
From classical sin φn cos i cos 2 ( φn + β n − α n ) + tan 2 ηc sin 2 β n
oblique cutting
thin shear zone τ .δA sin ( β n − α n )
δFQ =
model
sin φn cos i cos 2 ( φn + β n − α n ) + tan 2 ηc sin 2 β n
τ .δA[ cos( β n − α n ) sin i − tan ηc cos i cos β n ]
δFR =
sin φn cos i cos 2 ( φn + β n − α n ) + tan 2 ηc sin 2 β n
tan β n = tan β cosη
rl ( cosηc / cos i ) cosα n
tan φn =
1 − rl ( cosηc / cos i ) sin α n
tan i cosα n
tan ( φn + β n ) =
tan ηc − sin α n tan i
previous next 04/29/09 22
 Mechanics of Cutting Approach
- Lip Region 4

Elemental ‘edge δFPe = K1P δb

force’ components δFQe = K1Q δb
δFRe = K1R δb
≈ K1P sin iδb
or ≈ 0

Putting it all
together Th  and Tq  = functions{ D,2W ,2 p, δ O ,ψ , f , N , M  ,τ , rl , β , K1P , K1Q }

previous next 04/29/09 23

Refer figure 2-14b

Mechanics of Cutting Approach

- Chisel Edge 1

For rlimit ≤ r ≤ rc
Elemental forces δTh ck = δFPc sin η + δFQc cosη
δTq ck = rk ( δFPc cosη − δFQc sin η )

Mc

Total thrust and Th c = 2∑ δTh ck

1
torque on chisel Mc
edge Tq c = 2∑ δTq ck
1

previous next 04/29/09 24

Refer figure 2-14b

Mechanics of Cutting Approach

- Chisel Edge 2
rc − rlim it Lc − 2rlim it
δb = =
Elemental cut Mc 2M c
geometry rk = rc − (k − 1 2 )δb = Lc / 2 − (k − 1 2 )δb
t = ( f cosη ) / 2

Force coefficients C1P

and C1Q for
δFPc = C1Pδb
discontinuous chips
found from ‘special’ δFQc = C1Qδb
orthogonal database

Overall, for the

chisel edge Th c and Tq c = functions{2W ,2 p,ψ , γ w , γ 2 , f , N , M c , C1P , C1Q }

previous next 04/29/09 25

Refer flowchart

Mechanics of Cutting Approach

Overall results: Th t = Th  + Th c + Th I

Tq t = Tq  + Tq c

Th t & Tq t = fns{ D,2W ,2 p, δ O ,ψ , γ w , γ 2 , f , N , M  , M c ,τ , rl , β , K1P , K1Q , C1P , C1Q }

Analysis is
complicated so
computerisation
is useful

previous next 04/29/09 26

Refer figure 2-15

Predicted Characteristics
From application Th t = 47.5 f .545 D1.036 (2W / D).339 2 p.168δ O−.206 2γ W.311ψ .266 (N)
of Mechanics of Tq t = 4.56 f .660 D 2.004 (2W / D).149 2 p −.241δ O−.263 2γ W−.008ψ −.188 (Nm)
Cutting model

For Plane Th t = 99.7 f .546 D1.027 (2W / D).279 2 p.518δ O−.210ψ .050 (N)
Flank model Tq t = 3.71 f .661D 2.004 (2W / D ).113 2 p −.226δ O−.263ψ −.177 (Nm)

Th = C1’.f 0.6.D
Compared with
empirical results Tq = C2’.f 0.78.D1.8

Tq = C2’.f 0.803.D1.803
previous next 04/29/09 27
Refer figure 2-17

Geometric Similarity
2 p1 = 2 p2
All specified ψ1 = ψ 2
angles must be Clo1 = Clo 2
equal
L1 D1
δ o1 = δ o 2 ⇒ =
L2 D2
Clco1 = Clco 2

All specified lengths

must be in proportion 2W1 B1 2rc1 D1
= = =
2W2 B2 2rc 2 D2

All angles at ω1 = ω 2 , Cl1 = Cl2 , δ 1 = δ 2 ,

corresponding points
r1 & r2 must be equal α n1 = α n 2 , Cln1 = Cln 2 , i1 = i2
previous next 04/29/09 28
Refer figure 2-18

Forces for Geometric Similarity - 1

δTh1 j = 2.U th1 j δA1 j = U th1 j f .δr1; δTh 2 j = U th 2 j f .δr2
Uth and Utq are
forces per unit δTq1 j = 2.δFP1 j r1 j = 2.U tq1 j δA1 j r1 j = U tq1 j f .r1 j δr1
area. δTq 2 j = U tq 2 j f .r2 j δr2
where
D D2
δr1 = 1 ; δr2 =
M M
For geometrically
similar annuli, U th1 j = U th 2 j = U thj and U tq1 j = U tq 2 j = U tqj
fundamental
r1 j δr1 D1
angles are equal, = =
so the specific r2 j δr2 D2
forces are too.
previous next 04/29/09 29
Refer figure 2-18

Forces for Geometric Similarity - 2

D1 D
Applying δTh1 j = U Thj f .δr2 = δTh2 j 1
D2 D2
equations from 2 2
previous slide  D1   D1 
δTq1 j = U Tqj f .r2 j δr2   = δTq2 j  
 
 D2   D2 

M
D1 M D1
Applying to Tht1 = ∑ δTh1 j = ∑ δTh2 j = Tht 2
whole of the j =1 D2 j =1 D2
drills M
 D1 
2
M
 D1 
2

Tqt1 = ∑ δTq1 j =   ∑ δTq2 j = Tqt 2  

j =1  D2  j =1  D2 

C1 and C2 depend
Tht = C1D
on feed and work
material Tqt = C2 D 2
previous next 04/29/09 30