An overview of plant reproduction

Reproduction
Reproduction is the production of new individuals to replace those that die. Asexual reproduction increases the number of any genotype that can survive in a particular environment by producing genetically identical individuals Sexual reproduction produces new, genetically different individuals with unique genotypes so perpetuating variation to ensure natural selection can operate when the environment changes

Plants show alternation of generations

DIPLOID

Variation so spores not genetically identical Source of increased variation

HAPLOID

Spores produced by (haploid) mitosis

Mosses

Kingdom Plantae Phylum Bryophyta

Life cycle of a moss

spores formed by meiosis

meiosis

diploid

mitosis fertilisation Dominant gametophyte (poorly adapted to resist water loss; water needed for fertilisation) Dependent sporophyte haploid

Sporophyte parasitic on gametophyte

gametophyte

Capsule = sporangium = sporophtye stage = diploid stage produces haploid spores by meiosis Moss plant = gametophyte i.e. haploid stage which produces gametes and is site of sexual reproduction No cuticle, so guard cells so loses water restricted to damp habitats

Sterile hairs called paraphyses which retain so motile male gametes can swim

Antheridia on male gametophyte produce motile haploid male gametes (since plant is already haploid, these are produced by mitosis) dispersed by rain splash

Antheirida

Archegonia on female gametophyte produce non-motile female gametes

Archegonium

Egg cell (oosphere)

Fertilisation by male gametes which swim in through the neck to produce diploid sporophyte stage

Spore capsule diploid sporophyte (produces spores by meiosis)

Peristome teeth curl back in dry to release spores

Spore germinates to produce a protonema

developing gametophyte (moss plant)

Young gametophyte

Ferns

Kingdom Plantae Phylum Filicinophyta

Fern plant = diploid sporophyte Better adapted to terrestrial life cuticle, guard cells Xylem support so taller Fern frond = spororophyll = spore-forming leaf

i.e. produces spores by meiosis

Life cycle of a fern

Diploid stage

meiosis

Haploid stage

Dominant sporophyte (better adapted to resist water loss) Tiny gametophyte (poorly adapted to resist water loss; dependent on water for fertilisation)

Fern frond

Fern frond = sporophyte diploid - produces haploid spores by meiosis

Sorus with spore capsules underneath

Sorus is a cluster of spore capsules

Spore capsule = sporangium

A sorus TS frond

sporangium

annulus cells with thickened cell walls

A sporangium

spores

stomium with thin cell walls

Ruptured sporangia releasing spores Spores released in dry; annulus cells dry out and so it curls backwards puts cells of stomium under tension so they ruptures spores then dispersed by wind

Spore germinates to produce a tiny prothallus This is the gametophyte = haploid stage

Produces gametes and is site of sexual reproduction

Prothallus has no cuticle so prone to dehydration so restricted to damp places

1 cm

produce female gametes

produce male gametes

= simple roots

Sperm released in moist conditions; have flagella so can swim

Contain egg cell (oosphere) Release malic acid to attract swimming male gametes for fertilisation

Young diploid spororophyte growing from prothallus following fertilisation

Flowering p

Kingdom Plan Phylum Anthop (usually call Angiosperm

Life cycle of a flowering plant

embryosac
mother cell

3 cells degenerate

meiosis

to leave one megaspore cell

meiosis

Haploid phase

Diploid phase

pollen mother cell

mitosis

mitosis

diploid

Dominant sporophyte (well adapted to resist water loss) Reduced separate male and female gametophytes, retained in tissues of sporophyte, internal fertilisation (so reduces dependency on water)

carpel contains ovules which contains female gamete

petal

stamen (produces pollen containing male gametes)

All sepals = calyx All petals = corolla All stamens = androecium All carpels = gynoecium

Floral parts have evolved from leaves and are arranged in concentric whorls evidence - veins

Life cycle of a flowering plant

embryosac
mother cell

3 cells degenerate

meiosis

to leave one megaspore cell

meiosis

Haploid phase

Diploid phase

pollen mother cell

mitosis

mitosis

diploid

Dominant sporophyte (well adapted to resist water loss) Reduced separate male and female gametophytes, retained in tissues of sporophyte, internal fertilisation (so reduces dependency on water)

anther stamen filament

Anther derived from spore-forming leaf (diploid). Pollen microspores formed by meiosis which develop into mature pollen grains Pollen grains

pollen sac
(is actually a sporangium!)

pollen grain

tapetum (layer of nutritive cells)

Anther dries and splits open to release pollen grains

Development of pollen grains

meiosis

mitosis

2 celled male microgametophyte

(haploid)

Exine (outer coat)

tube nucleus

Pollen grain is 2-celled male microgametophyte male nucleus will divide by mitosis to produce 2 male gametes

Male nucleus

Development of the embryosac (female gametophyte) within the ovule (actually a sporangium!) in the ovary of the carpel (which has evolved from a spore-forming leaf

4 cells produced; 3 degenerate to leave one haploid megaspore cell

meiosis

mitosis

Embryosac is 8-celled female gametophyte (haploid) mitosis mitosis

Lily embryo sac. Light micrograph of an embryo sac from the female reproductive parts of a lily flower (Lilium sp.). The embryo sac is inside an ovule (cells at bottom and left) that is itself inside an ovary. At centre is the megaspore mother cell, or megasporocyte (green, oval). Its nucleus (round, white) containing chromosomes (brown) is also seen. At this stage the cell is diploid. The mother cell will undergo meiosis to produce 4 haploid megaspores, which will develop into gametophytes (sex cell producing cells).

Mature ovule

nucellus (nutritive tissue)

import food from ovule

may fuse to form a diploid nucleus

Haploid female gamete Embryosac

(female gametophyte with 8 haploid nuclei retained within the ovule tissues) release chemicals so pollen tubes find way into embryosac by chemotaxis

Pollen transferred to stigma. Germinates to produce a pollen tube which grows down style.

pollen tube

integuments of ovule

Male nucleus in pollen grain divides by mitosis to produce to male gamete nuclei which pass down the pollen tube to enter the embryosac.

Fertilisation

Male nucleus in pollen grain divides by mitosis to produce to male gamete nuclei which pass down the pollen tube to enter the embryosac. One nucleus fuses with the female gamete nucleus to produce the diploid zygote

The other make gamete nucleus and the polar nuclei fuse to produce the triploid endosperm nucleus

Seeds are produced inside fruit

After fertilisation the ovary of the flower becomes the FRUIT which contains the seeds. The ovary wall becomes the PERICARP Usually adapted to ensure the efficient dispersal of the seeds The ovule becomes the SEED

Seed structure
= testa

derived from integuments of ovule

derived by cell division (mitosis) of zygote

Derived from multiple division of endosperm nucleus (acts as a food store for the embryo)

A seed is a fertilised ovule (an ovule is the structure in the ovary of a plant which contains the female gamete)

Dicot seed
Plumule (embryo shoot)

Cotyledon
(embryo leaf)

Radicle (embryo root)

The seed consists of:

The seed coat or testa
hard, dry, tough; protective

The embryo
The baby plant; consists of Radicle (embryo root) Plumule (embryo shoot)

Cotyledons (embryo seed leaves)

Life cycle of a flowering plant

embryosac
mother cell

3 cells degenerate

meiosis

to leave one megaspore cell

meiosis

Haploid phase

Diploid phase

pollen mother cell

mitosis

mitosis

diploid

Dominant sporophyte (well adapted to resist water loss) Reduced separate male and female gametophytes, retained in tissues of sporophyte, internal fertilisation (so reduces dependency on water)