Thermodynamics Review

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Energy cannot be created or destroyed,
but transformed into different forms
Applies to systems classified as either
closed or open
Thermodynamics is the transformation
of energy

Craig Bradshaw, Lambert Fellow and PhD
Candidate
Slides provided by Prof. S. F. Son, and M.
Mathison
Adapted from Prof. G. A. Risha and other
sources such as Kaplan AEC Education

Thermodynamic Systems

AE
stored
= E
in
E
out
+ E
gen
gen out in stored
E E E E

+ =
Energy Balance: Finite Time
Energy Balance: Rate
W
in
< 0
W
out
> 0 Q
in
> 0
Q
out
< 0
What is your system?
Closed (fixed mass) or open (fixed volume)
Energy Transfer by
Work and Heat:
Engines burn fuel to put heat
into the system and produce
work (out of the system)

Fixed Mass: Closed System
W Q PE KE U
W Q E
W Q
dt
dE
stored
cv
= + +
=
=

Note: Closed systems are a subset of open systems

Systems and Sign Convention
Consider a system that contains a lightbulb powered by
electricity. Which of the following is true?
a) Positive work, positive heat transfer
b) Positive work, negative heat transfer
c) Negative work, positive heat transfer
d) Negative work, negative heat transfer



Which of the following would be considered a closed system?
a) A pump
b) A tire
c) A turbine
d) A jet nozzle
+ -
0 = = W Q
dt
dE
cv

W Q

=


Closed System: Work
} }
= = pdv m V pd W
ork boundary w
Boundary Work:
Constant Pressure:
( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
v v p v mp V V p V p W = A = = A =
Note that if
volume is constant,
W = 0
P
}
= Fdx W
Polytropic:
constant pv
n
=
1 n if
V
V
ln V p W 1, n if
n 1
V p V p
W
1
2
1 1
1 1 2 2
= = =

=

Work: Special Cases (Ideal Gas)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
1
2
p
p
mRTln
v
v
mRTln W
Constant Temperature:
Isentropic: s
2
= s
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

k
1 k
1
2 1 1 1 2 2
p
p
1
1 k
mRT
k 1
V p V p
W
constant pv=
constant pv
k
=
specific heat ratio,
RT pv=
Ideal Gas Law:
mRT pV=

v
p
c
c
k =

Closed System Work
When using the previous equations for boundary work, it must
be assumed that a quasi-equilibrium process exists. If a
quasi-equilibruim process exists, we have assumed
a) The pressure at any instant to be everywhere constant.
b) An isothermal process.
c) The heat transfer to be small.
d) The boundary motion to be infinitesimally small.
e) That no friction exists.



Control Volume: Open System
Energy entering
the control volume
in the forms of
kinetic energy,
potential energy,
and enthalpy
Energy exiting the
control volume in the
forms of kinetic energy,
potential energy, and
enthalpy (h = u + pv)
in
2
in
in
gz
2
V
h + +
in
2
in
in
gz
2
V
h + +
0
dt
dE
V C
= At steady-state,

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
out
2
out
out out in
2
in
in in
V C
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE



Nozzles and Diffusers

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
out
2
out
out out in
2
in
in in
V C
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE


Assumptions: (1) adiabatic, Q = 0
(2) no volume changes, W = 0
(3) steady-state, d/dt = 0
(4) change in potential energy negligible

2
V
h
2
V
h
2
out
out
2
in
in
+ = +
2
V
2
V
h - h h
2
out
2
in
in out
= = A
or

Nozzles and Diffusers
Nozzle Efficiency:
Compares the performance
of a real nozzle or diffuser
to the performance of an
ideal, isentropic nozzle or
diffuser operating between
the same pressures
( )
( ) 2 V V
2 V V
h
h
2
inlet
2
s outlet,
2
inlet
2
outlet
ideal
actual

=
A
A
=
nozzle
q
Isentropic process
with same initial state
and final pressure
h-s Diagram for Nozzle

Actual process

Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
out
2
out
out out in
2
in
in in
V C
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE


Assumptions: (1) adiabatic, Q = 0
(2) change in potential energy negligible
(3) steady-state, d/dt = 0
(4) change in kinetic energy negligible

out in
h h
m
W
=

Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors
Turbine and compressor/pump efficiencies both compare the performance of
an actual device to the performance of an ideal, isentropic device operating
between the same pressures
Turbine Efficiency: In turbines,
the actual power generation will be
less than the ideal power generation



Pump/Compressor Efficiency:
In pumps/compressors, the actual
power consumption will be greater
than the ideal power consumption

q
t
=
Ah
actual
Ah
ideal
=
h
inlet
h
outlet
( )
actual
h
inlet
h
outlet,s
( )
s
isentropic
( )
( )
actual
inlet outlet
s
s inlet, outlet
actual
ideal
c
h h
h h
h
h

=
A
A
= q
isentropic

Throttling Valves

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
out
2
out
out out in
2
in
in in
V C
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE


Assumptions: (1) adiabatic, Q = 0
(2) no volume changes, W = 0
(3) steady-state, d/dt = 0
(4) change in potential energy negligible
(5) change in kinetic energy negligible

out in
h h =

Boilers, Condensers, and Evaporators

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
out
2
out
out out in
2
in
in in
V C
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE


Assumptions: (1) constant volume, W = 0
(2) change in potential energy negligible
(3) steady-state, d/dt = 0
(4) change in kinetic energy negligible

in out
h h
m
Q
=

Heat Exchangers

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
out
2
out
out out in
2
in
in in
V C
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE


Assumptions: (1) constant volume, W = 0
(2) change in potential energy negligible
(3) steady-state, d/dt = 0
(4) change in kinetic energy negligible
(5) adiabatic, Q = 0
out out in in
h m h m

=


Example Problem 1
Given: Gas initially at 1 MPa and 150
o
C receives 7.2 MJ of work while 1.5 kW of
heat are removed from the system. Calculate the internal energy change for
the system over a period of one hour.
Analysis:










AE=AU+AKE+APE=QW
negligible

AU=QW
Work done ON system: W = -7.2 MJ
Heat OUT of the system:
kW -1.5 Q=

MJ -5.4 s) kW(3600 -1.5 Q t Q = = A =

AU=5.4MJ (7.2MJ)

AU=1.8MJ

Example Problem 2
Given: Calculate the power required to compress 10 kg/s of air from 1 atm and 37
o
C
to 2 atm and 707
o
C.
For low pressure air: T = 310 K; h = 290.4 kJ/kg
T = 980 K; h = 1023 kJ/kg
Analysis:









|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
out
2
out
out out in
2
in
in in
V C
gz
2
V
h m gz
2
V
h m W Q
dt
dE


) h (h m W
out in
=

kg
kJ
s
kg
1023) (290.4 10 W =

kW 7326 7326 W
s
kJ
= =

Done ON system
kW 7326 W
c
=

Example Problem 3
Given: A gas goes through the following thermodynamic
cycle.
A to B: constant-temperature compression
B to C: constant-volume cooling
C to A: constant-pressure expansion

The pressure and volume at state C are 1.4 bar and
0.028 m
3
, respectively. The net work from C to A is
10.5 kJ.

What is the net work from one complete cycle A-B-C?
Analysis:




C
A
B
P
V
A C C B B A cyc
W W W W

+ + =
} } } }
+ + = =
A
C
C
B
B
A
cyc
V pd V pd V pd V pd W

AV = 0

Example Problem 3
C
A
B
P
V
kJ 10.5 V pd V pd W
B
A
cyc
+ = =
} }
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
B
V
V
RTln W
Constant Temperature:
Need volume @ A, constant pressure A to C

W = p
A
V
A
V
C
( )
V
A
= V
C
+
W
CA
p
A
J 1
m N 1 m
N 1
Pa 1
Pa 1x10
bar 1
bar 1.4
J 10500
m 0.028
p
W
V V
2
5
3
A
CA
C A

+ = + =
Compression, W<0
3
A
m 0.103 V =

Example Problem 3
C
A
B
P
V
kJ 10.5 kJ 18.8 W
cyc
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

A
B
B A
V
V
RTln W
Constant Temperature:
Ideal gas and constant mass
( )
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

0.103
0.028
ln
m N 1
J 1
m 0.103
m Pa 1
N 1
bar 1
Pa 1x10
bar 1.4
V
V
ln V p W
3
2
5
A
B
A B A
kJ -18.8 W
B A
=

kJ 8.3 W
cyc
=

PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Use of Steam Tables
Use of R-134a Tables, NH
3

Tables, and P-h Diagrams

Pure Substances
What is a pure substance?
Materials with unchanging chemical composition
Three common phases of pure substances:
Liquid, vapor, and solid
Also consider liquid-vapor mixtures, which are a
combination of liquid and vapor where pressure and
temperature are not independent
State Postulate: Two independent, intensive
properties are required to fix a state
Intensive: Independent of system size (usually per mass)
Extensive: Dependent on size of system


T-v Phase Diagram
Diagram courtesy of Jerry M. Seitzman, 2001.

@ Constant Pressure
T > T
sat
superheated vapor
T = T
sat
two-phase liquid-vapor

T < T
sat
compressed liquid
T-v Phase Diagram

P-v Phase Diagram
@ Constant Temperature
P < P
sat
superheated vapor
P = P
sat
two-phase liquid-vapor

P > P
sat
compressed liquid

Common Properties
Mass, m
Extensive
Units [kg]
Volume, V
Extensive
Units [m
3
]
Pressure, P
Intensive
Absolute units [Pa, psia]
Gage, P
gage
= P
abs
- P
atm
Temperature, T
Absolute units [K or
o
R]
T[K] = T[
o
C] + 273.15
T[
o
R] = T[
o
F] + 459.67
A set of properties that completely describes a system,
specifies the state of the system.
Specific Volume, v
Intensive
Units [m
3
/kg]
v = 1/ = V/m
Internal energy, u
Intensive
Units [kJ/kg]
U = m*u [kJ]
Enthalpy, h
Intensive
Units [kJ/kg]
h = u + Pv; H = U + P V
H = m*h

Properties [contd]
Entropy, s
S, extensive [kJ/K]
s, intensive [kJ/kg-K]


Enthalpy
H, extensive [kJ]
H, intensive [kJ/kg]
H = U + PV
h = u + Pv]

Gibbs Function
G, extensive [kJ]
g, intensive [kJ/kg]
g = h - Ts = u + Pv - Ts
G = H - TS = U + PV TS




As =
oQ
rev
T
}


Saturated Liquid Vapor Mixture (SLVM)
Quality is a function
of the horizontal
distances on P-v
and T-v diagrams
g f
g
vap liq
vap
m m
m
m m
m
x
+
=
+
=
mass of vapor
mass of liquid
f g
f mix
f g
f mix
f g
f mix
f g
f mix
v v
v v
s s
s s
h h
h h
u u
u u
x

=
Quality:
( )
( )
( )
( )
f g f mix
f g f mix
f g f fg f mix
f g f fg f mix
v v x v v
u u x u u
s s x s xs s s
h h x h xh h h
+ =
+ =
+ = + =
+ = + =

Example
The Purdue Physics department did a
demonstration of collapsing a barrel by
boiling a small amount of water for
several minutes, then sealing the barrel
and letting it cool (see images below).
Room temperature is 25
o
C. What is the
maximum pressure difference (between
the outside and inside of the barrel)
possible that could be realized if the
barrel were strong enough NOT to
collapse?

Assume saturated vapor at atmospheric conditions. Table A-4, for
p=101.42 kPa, T=100
o
C, yields v1 = vg =1.6720 m3/kg
At state 2: v2 = v1 =1.6720 m3/kg
The MAXIMUM pressure difference possible would be for the
water vapor to be cooled to room temperature. At room
temperature (25
o
C), v
g
= 45.3 m
3
/kg and v
f
= 0.001003 m
3
/kg.
Therefore, the water is a SLVM at 1.6720 m
3
/kg and 25
o
C. The
SLVM is at the saturation pressure at 25
o
C, which is 3.1698 kPa.
For this process, P = 101.42 3.1698 kPa.
Thus, the maximum pressure difference is 98.25 kPa.

IDEAL GASES
Equations of State
Enthalpy and Internal Energy
Changes

Ideal Gas Equation of State
R
u
= 8.314 kJ/kmol-K
= 8314 J/kmol-K
= 1.986 cal/mol-K
mRT V P =
RT Pv =
RT P =
T nR V P
u
=
gas
u
MW
R
R =
P pressure [Pa]
V volume [m
3
]
m mass [kg]
R gas constant [J/kg-K]
T temperature [K]
density [kg/m
3
]
v specific volume [m
3
/kg]
n number of moles [mol]
R
u
universal gas constant [J/kmol-K]
MW
gas
molecular weight [kg/kmol]

Ideal Gas Relationships
Specific Heats:
Entropy:

As = c
p
T
2
T
1
|
\

|
.
|
Rln
p
2
p
1
|
\

|
.
|
Internal Energy: Enthalpy:
c
p
c
v
= R
constant pressure specific
heat [kJ/kg-K]
constant volume specific
heat [kJ/kg-K]
gas constant [kJ/kg-K]
Au = c
v
AT [kJ/kg] Ah = c
p
AT [kJ/kg]

As = c
v
T
2
T
1
|
\

|
.
|
+ Rln
v
2
v
1
|
\

|
.
|
(Assuming
constant
specific heat)
(Assuming
constant
specific heat)

Ideal Gas Relationships
2 2 1 1
v p v p =
2
1
2
1
v
v
T
T
=
Constant Temperature:
Constant Volume:
Constant Pressure:
2
1
2
1
p
p
T
T
=

Isentropic Ideal Gas Relationships
k
2 2
k
1 1
v p v p =
1 k
1
2
2
1
v
v
T
T

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Isentropic with constant specific heats:
k = specific heat ratio
k
k 1
1
2
2
1
p
p
T
T

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
v
p
c
c
k =

Non-ideal Gases
Gases behave ideally at low pressures and
high temperatures
What is meant by low pressure and high
temperature?
Compressibility factor quantifies the deviation of
a pure substance from ideal gas behavior at a
given temperature and pressure




Z = 1 (ideal gas)
For a real gas, Z > 1 or Z < 1
For Z very close to unity, we can assume ideal gas
behavior, most of the time

Reduced pressure and temperature:




P
R
= reduced pressure; T
R
= reduced temperature
P
cr
= critical pressure; T
cr
= critical temperature

Principle of Corresponding States: The
compressibility factor is approximately the same
at the same P
R
and T
R
for all fluids
Therefore, a generalized compressibility chart can be
used to find the compressibility factor of any fluid
Compressibility Factor

Generalized Compressibility Chart
Sonntag, Borgnakke,
and Van Wylen,
Fundamentals of
Thermodynamics, 5
th

Edition, page 763.

Property Evaluation
STEP 1: ALWAYS start in the saturated or two-phase liquid-
vapor tables
STEP 2: Identify two, independent, intensive properties
Pick one property and find its location; compare the second using the
following rules:
If the properties are pressure and temperature, and
T
sat
< T or P
sat
> P, then superheated vapor
T
sat
> T or P
sat
< P, then compressed liquid or sub-cooled
T
sat
= T or P
sat
= P, then liquid-vapor and need another property
If one of the properties is not pressure or temperature
Let | be your property
| > |
g
, then superheated vapor
| < |
f
, then compressed liquid or sub-cooled
|
f
< | < |
g
, then liquid-vapor


Property Evaluation
STEP 3: Evaluate the remaining properties
If superheated vapor, then go to superheated tables
If compressed liquid or sub-cooled, then go to compressed liquid
tables
If data does not exist, assume the following:
v = v
f
h = h
f

u = u
f
s = s
f

where the saturated liquid property is evaluated at the given
temperature since pressure does not impact liquids that much
If liquid-vapor, then continue using the two-phase liquid-vapor tables
and find quality


Saturated Mixture Table

Superheated Steam

Superheated Steam [contd]


Mollier Diagram (P vs h)

Example 1
Given: Steam at 2.0 kPa is saturated at 17.5
o
C. In what state will the steam be at
40
o
C if the pressure is 2.0 kPa?
Analysis:
@ P = 2.0 kPa = 0.02 bar, and T = 40
o
C
P
sat
> P superheated vapor



Example 2
Given: What is the change in internal energy of air (assumed to be an ideal gas)
cooled from 550
o
C to 100
o
C (assume constant c
v
= 0.718 kJ/kg-K) ?
Analysis:
ideal gas Au = c
v
AT = c
v
(T
2
-T
1
)
given c
v
= 0.718 kJ/kg-K
Au = 0.718 kJ/kg-K (550-100)K
Au = 323.1 kJ/kg





Example 3
Given: A boy on the beach holds a spherical balloon filled with air. At 10:00 a.m., the
temperature on the beach is 20
o
C and the balloon has a diameter of 30 cm.
Two hours later, the balloon diameter is 30.5 cm. Assuming the air is an ideal
gas and that no air was lost or added, what is the temperature on the beach
at noon?
Analysis:
ideal gas
constant mass, constant pressure, and same gas,





mRT V P =

V
1
T
1
=
V
2
T
2
T
2
=
T
1
V
2
V
1
=
T
1
D
2
3
D
1
3
( )
C 35 K 308
cm) (30
cm) K(30.5 273 20
T
o
3
3
2
= =
+
=

Example 4
Given: Steam initially at 1 MPa and 200
o
C expands in a turbine to 40
o
C and 83%
quality. What is the change in entropy?
Analysis:
@ P
1
=1 MPa = 10 bar, and T
1
=200
o
C >> P
sat
> P superheated vapor
@ T=40
o
C and x
2
= 0.83 two-phase liquid-vapor









Example 4 - Contd
Given: Steam initially at 1 MPa and 200
o
C expands in a turbine to 40
o
C and 83%
quality. What is the change in entropy?
Analysis:
s
1
= 6.6940 kJ/kg-K (from superheated table for 1 MPa, 200
o
C)
@ 40
o
C, s
2,f
= 0.5725 kJ/kg-K; s
2,g
= 8.257 kJ/kg-K
s
2
= s
2,f
+x
2
(s
2,g
-s
2,f
)
= 0.5725+0.83*(8.257- 0.5725)
s
2
= 6.9506 kJ/kg-K
s
2
- s
1
= (6.9506 6.694) kJ/kg-K
s
2
- s
1
= 0.2566 kJ/kg-K



Example 5
Given: A 3 kg mixture of water and water vapor at 70
o
C is held at constant pressure
while heat is added. The enthalpy of the water increases by 50 kJ/kg. What
is the change in entropy?
Analysis:


As = 0.1458 kJ/kg-K



As =
oQ
rev
T
}
As =
Q
T
o
=
50 kJ/kg
(70+ 273)K
integrate
Heat flow = enthalpy change since

Q=AH

k
k 1
1
2
2
1
p
p
T
T

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Given: Through an isentropic process, a piston compresses 2 kg of an ideal gas at
150 kPa and 35
o
C in a cylinder to a pressure of 300 kPa. The specific heat
of the gas for constant pressure processes is 5 kJ/kg-K; for constant volume
processes, the specific heat is 3 kJ/kg-K. What is the final temperature of the
gas?
Analysis:
ideal gas and constant entropy

c
p
= 5 kJ/kg-K; c
v
= 3 kJ/kg-K






Example 6
667 . 1
3
5
c
c
k
v
p
= = =
k
k - 1
1
2
1
2
p
p
T
T
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
( )
C 133.44 K 406.44
150
300
K 273 35
T
o
2
1. 667
1. 667 - 1
= =
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

Example 7
Given: 3 kg of steam with a quality of 30% has a pressure of 12.056 bar. At that
pressure, the specific volume of a saturated fluid is v
f
= 1.5289 cm
3
/g. The
specific volume of the vapor is v
g
= 14.1889 cm
3
/g. What is the specific
volume of the steam?
Analysis:
v
f
= 1.5289 cm
3
/g
v
g
= 14.1889 cm
3
/
v
mix
= v
f
+x(v
g
-v
f
)
= 1.5289 +0.30*(14.1889 - 1.5289) cm
3
/g
v
mix
= 5.3269 cm
3
/g



Second Law
THE SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
ENTROPY

Thermo in a Nutshell
1. There is a game. (0
th
law, thermal
equilibrium)
2. The best you can do is tie. (1
st
Law,
energy balance)
3. You can never tie. (2
nd
Law, entropy
increase principal)
4. You cant quit. (3
rd
Law, absolute zero)


2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics
(1) Kelvin-Planck: It is impossible to build a cyclic engine
that will have a thermal efficiency of 100%
* All work can be converted to heat, but all heat CANNOT
be converted into work
* Maximum possible thermal efficiency for a heat engines
is the Carnot cycle efficiency
(2) Clausius Statement: It is impossible to devise a cycle
such that its only effect is the transfer of heat from a
low-temperature body to a high-temperature body

* An input of work is always required for refrigeration cycles
Generally, there are two ways to state the
second law of thermodynamics:

Net entropy must ALWAYS increase:

The equality applies for reversible processes
The inequality applies for irreversible processes,
in which entropy production contributes to entropy change
Entropy Changes
}
> A
2
1
T
T
T
dQ
S
For a constant temperature, reversible process, entropy
change is given by:

AS =S
2
S
1
=
Q
T
o
discharging energy to reservoir
temperature of the reservoir
Isentropic process, entropy change is given by:

AS=S
2
S
1
=0
Adiabatic process, entropy change is given by:

AS=S
2
S
1
>0

Entropy Changes
Evaluating the property of entropy:
For incompressible solids and liquids, constant specific
heats,


For ideal gases with constant specific heats,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1 2
T
T
cln s s
1
2
1
2
v 1 2
v
v
Rln
T
T
ln c s s +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
1
2
1
2
p 1 2
p
p
Rln
T
T
ln c s s
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

Problem 4
Given: 1 kg of steam is initially at 400
o
C and 800 kPa. The steam expands
adiabatically to 200
o
C and 400 kPa in a closed process, performing 450 kJ
of work, given the following information. Which law does this process
violate: (zeroth law, first law, second law, first and second law)?

at 400
o
C and 800 kPa at 200
o
C and 400 kPa
u = 2959.7 kJ/kg u = 2646.8 kJ/kg
h = 3267.1 kJ/kg h = 2860.5 kJ/kg
s = 7.5716 kJ/kg-K s = 7.1706 kJ/kg
Analysis:
(1) Zeroth law not applicable, does not deal with thermal equilibrium
(2) Check first law

AE=AU+AKE+APE=QW
negligible

Problem 4 Contd
at 400
o
C and 800 kPa at 200
o
C and 400 kPa
u = 2959.7 kJ/kg u = 2646.8 kJ/kg
h = 3267.1 kJ/kg h = 2860.5 kJ/kg
s = 7.5716 kJ/kg-K s = 7.1706 kJ/kg


AU = QW
Au =
Q
m

W
m

Q
m
= Au +
W
m
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
kg
kJ
450 2959.7 2646.8
m
Q
+ =
W > 0 done
BY system
kg
kJ
1 . 137
m
Q
=
= 0
NOT adiabatic Q = 0, as stated
Therefore, violates 1
st
Law

Problem 4 Contd
at 400
o
C and 800 kPa at 200
o
C and 400 kPa
s = 7.5716 kJ/kg-K s = 7.1706 kJ/kg


As >0 for adiabatic process

As = 7.1706
kJ
kg -K
7.5716
kJ
kg -K
< 0
violates 2
nd
Law
(3) Check 2
nd
Law

As =-0.401
kJ
kg -K
Violates both 1
st
and 2
nd
Laws

CYCLES
Rankine Cycle (Steam)
Vapor Compression Cycle
(Refrigeration)
Otto Cycle (Gasoline
Engine)


Basic Cycles
Power Generation
(Heat Engine)
Refrigeration, Air-
Conditioning, Heat Pump


Basic Cycles: Definitions
Cycle: Series of processes that eventually brings the
system back to its original state
Power Cycle:
A cycle that uses heat energy to do work on the surroundings
Performance is measured by thermal efficiency, which is the
ratio of useful work output to the energy input required to run
the cycle:

q
th
=
W
net
Q
in
=
W
out
W
in
Q
in
=
Q
net
Q
in
=
Q
in
Q
out
Q
in
work done ON system
work done BY system
heat INTO system
heat OUT OF system

Carnot Cycle
Carnot Cycle:
(1) Theoretical implementation
of a cycle without any
irreversibilities
(2) Work output is the maximum
possible for any heat engine
due to reversible processes
Processes
A to B: isothermal expansion of saturated liquid to saturated vapor
B to C: isentropic expansion of vapor (Q = 0; As = 0)
C to D: isothermal compression of vapor
D to A: isentropic compression of vapor (Q = 0; As = 0)
B
C
D
A

Carnot: P-v and T-s Diagrams
A
D C
B
A
B
D C
Carnot Efficiency:

q
th,Carnot
=
T
H
T
L
T
H
=1
T
L
T
H
cold reservoir
temperature
hot reservoir
temperature

Problem 1
Given: A Carnot engine receives 100 kJ of heat from a hot reservoir at 370
o
C and
rejects 37 kJ of heat. Determine the temperature of the cold reservoir.
Analysis:
kJ 100
kJ 37 kJ 100
Q
Q Q
Q
Q
H
L H
in
net
th

=

= = q

q
th,Carnot
=
T
H
T
L
T
H
=1
T
L
T
H

q
th
=0.63 or 63%

T
L
= T
H
T
H
( )
q
th,Carnot
( )0.63 273 370 ) 273 370 ( T
L
+ + =
T
L
= 237.91 K = -35.09
o
C
Use absolute
temperatures!
Q
H

Q
L

W
T
L

T
H


Problem 2
Given: What is the maximum thermal efficiency possible for a power cycle operating
between 600
o
C and 110
o
C?
Analysis:

q
th,Carnot
=1
T
L
T
H
Carnot yields maximum possible efficiency

q
th,Carnot
=1
110 + 273
( )
K
600 + 273
( )
K

q
th,Carnot
=0.561 or 56.1%

Problem 3
Given: A heat pump takes heat from groundwater at 7
o
C and maintains a room at
21
o
C. What is the maximum coefficient of performance possible for this heat
pump?
Analysis:
L H
H
L H
H H
pump heat
T T
T
Q Q
Q
W
Q
COP

= =
upper limit of heat pump is set
by a Carnot heat pump cycle
( )
( ) ( )K 273 7 K 273 21
K 273 21
COP
pump heat
+ +
+
=
21 COP
pump heat
=
How does a refrigerator COP differ?
Q
H

Q
L

W
T
L

T
H


Rankine Cycle
Rankine Cycle:
Vapor-power cycle commonly used
in power plants with water as the
working fluid
Efficiency is ratio of useful output to
required input:
Processes
1 to 2: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid through the turbine from saturated
vapor at state 1 to the condenser pressure (Q = 0; As = 0)
2 to 3: Heat transfer from the working fluid as it flows at constant pressure through
the condenser with saturated liquid at state 3
3 to 4: Isentropic compression in the pump to state 4 in the compressed liquid
region. (Q = 0; As = 0)
4 to 1: Heat transfer to the working fluid as it flows at constant pressure through the
boiler to complete the cycle
( ) ( )
( )
4 1
3 4 2 1
in
net
th
h h
h h h h
Q
W

= = q

Rankine-Superheat
Superheat: Used to increase
the temperature of the working
fluid entering the low-pressure
turbine to reduce the wear on
turbine blades (point 3)

Combustion Power Cycles
Differ from vapor cycles since they cannot return
to their initial conditions
Due to significant complexities with computing
mixtures of fuel and air, combustion power cycles
are often analyzed as air-standard cycles
Air-Standard Otto Cycle: Hypothetical closed system
using air as the working fluid to simplify the chemistry
due to combustion


Air-Standard Otto Cycle
Air-Standard Otto Cycle: Hypothetical closed system using air as the
working fluid to simplify the chemistry due to combustion
Processes
1 to 2: Isentropic compression of the working fluid (Q = 0; As = 0)
2 to 3: Constant volume heat addition
3 to 4: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid (Q = 0; As = 0)
4 to 1: Constant volume heat rejection

Air-Standard Otto Cycle: Performance
Ideal Thermal Efficiency:

r
v
=
V
1
V
2
=
V
4
V
3
=
V
b
V
a
Compression Ratio:

q
th
=1r
v
1k
compression from A to B expansion from C to D
compression ratio
specific heat ratio

Refrigeration Cycles
In refrigeration cycles, heat is transferred from a
low-temperature area (i.e. inside the refrigerator) to
a high-temperature area (e.g., in the kitchen)
Since heat spontaneously flows only from high to low
temperature areas, work is required to force heat transfer
Opposite of heat engines
Systems:
Refrigerator: Heat is removed from air inside
Air conditioner: Heat is removed from air in an occupied
space
Heat Pump: Heat is supplied to air in an occupied space
Chiller: Heat is removed from water


Refrigeration Cycles: Performance
In refrigeration cycles, the coefficient of
performance (COP) is used in place of thermal
efficiency to measure performance
The COP is always the ratio of useful energy
transfer to the work input
W
Q
COP
W
Q
COP
H
pump heat
L
AC or, refrigerat
=
=
heat transfer from low-
temperature reservoir
work input
heat transfer from high-
temperature reservoir

MISCELLANEOUS
Mixture of Gases
Heat Transfer
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Modes of Heat Transfer
All heat transfer driven by
temperature difference
Heat transfer occurs via 3 modes
conduction (solid/fluid; molecular
collision)
depends on temperature gradient
convection (fluid; motion)
depends on temperature difference
radiation (no medium needed
electromagnetic waves)
depends on T
4

Conductive Heat Transfer
Conduction heat transfer
Transfer of energy by putting a hotter object in contact with a cooler
system)

Convective Heat Transfer
Convection heat transfer
transfer of energy between a solid surface and a moving fluid
Newtons law of cooling,
h = heat transfer coefficient.

Convective Heat Transfer
The wind chill
factor is an example
The air flow makes a
given temperature
feel (higher heat
loss) like a lower
temperature

Radiant Heat Transfer
Radiation heat transfer
transfer of energy due to emission and absorption of
electromagnetic radiation

Comfort in a Room
At the same air temperature in a
room in a house it feels cooler in
the winter than the summer
Why?

Thermal Circuit Model
A model used often to calculate the heat transfer through a
1-D system is called the thermal circuit model
In this model, each layer is replaced by an equivalent
resistor called the thermal resistance
For conduction,


For convection,









Mass and Mole Fraction
Mass Fraction: ratio of components mass to
the total mass of the mixture
Mole Fraction: ratio of components moles to
the total moles of the mixture
tot
i
i
m
m
w =
mass fraction of i
th
species
mass of i
th
species
total mass of mixture

=
i
m m 1 w
i
=

tot
i
i i
N
N
x y = =
mole fraction of i
th
species
moles of i
th
species
total moles of mixture
1 y
i
=

gas-phase
liquid-phase
1 x
i
=

Molecular Weight of Mixture:
Mass to Mole Fraction Conversion:
( )

= =
i i
tot
tot
mix
MW x
N
m
MW
mass fraction of i
th
species
molecular weight
of i
th
species
total moles of mixture
total mass of mixture
mole fraction of i
th
species

=
i
i
i
i
MW
w
MW
w
i
x
Mole to Mass Fraction Conversion:
( )
( )

=
i i
i i
i
MW x
MW x
w
Mass and Mole Fraction [contd]

Amagats Law: total volume is the sum of partial volumes
p x
V
T R m
p
i
i i
i
= =
partial pressure
of i
th
species
total pressure
of mixture
mole fraction of i
th
species

=
i
V V
V
V
p
p
x
i i
i
= =
Non-Reacting Ideal Gases
mass of i
th
species
Partial Pressure:
p
T R m
V
i i
i
=
partial volume
of i
th
species
Partial Volume:
Mole Fraction:

=
i i
u w u
assume adiabatic
and reversible

=
i i
s w s
internal energy
entropy
mass fraction

=
i i
h w h
enthalpy

The End


Appendices
A: SI Prefixes
B: Constants
C: Unit Conversions

Appendix A: SI Prefixes

Appendix B: Constants

Appendix B: Constants [contd]

Appendix C: Unit Conversions

Appendix C: Unit Conversions [contd]

Appendix C: Unit Conversions [contd]

Extra Examples

Liquid/Vapor Tables & Charts


Solution


Solution (continued)


Liquid/Vapor Tables & Charts


Solution


Solution (continued)


Enthalpy


Solution


Solution (continued)


Solution (continued)


Closed Systems


Solution


Steady Flow/Steady State


Solution


Reversible Processes


Solution


Solution (continued)


Reversible Processes


Solution


Three-Process Cycles


Solution


Solution (continued)


Otto Cycle


Solution


Solution (continued)


Solution (continued)


Reverse Cycles


Solution


Solution (continued)


Non-Condensable Gas Mixtures


Solution