SOLUTION

Solution is a homogenous mixture or uniform physical combination with out chemical changes of two or more substances.

Solute:

Substance which is smaller in amount in a solution i.e minor component.

Solvent:

Substance which is larger in amount in a solution i.e major component / dominated component.

Types of Solution:
SOLUTE
Gas Gas Gas Liquid Liquid Liquid Solid Solid Solid

+
+ + + + + + + + +

SOLVENT
Gas Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Solid

SOLUTION
Air Aerated water, coke H2 in Pd Vapors in air Alcohol in water (vodka) Hg in Na or Ag Carbon in air (black smoke) Glucose in water Alloys e.g (14-karat gold)

Concentration expressions of solution:

The amount of substance dissolved per unit volume of solution or in a specific weight of solvent is termed as concentration. It can be expressed in a number of ways, I). Percentage composition II). Molarity (M) III). Molality (m) IV). Normality (N) V). Mole Fraction (x) VI). Parts per Million (ppm)

I) Percentage composition =

Solute x 100 Solution

weight weight percentage or (w/w %) weight volume percentage or (w/v %) volume weight percentage or (v/w %) volume volume percentage or (v/v %)

II) Molarity (M)

No. of Moles of solute Volume of solution in liter Amount of solute in gm 1 gm mol. w.t of solute

No. of moles of solute =

1 gm mol. w.t of solute = Sum of Atomic mass of all atoms present in molecule Units: Molar or moles /liter

III)

Molality (m) =

NO. of moles of solute Mass of solvent in kg

Units : Molal or moles/kg Molarity changes with temperature but molality does not change. Molarity decreases as temperature increases. Why?

IV) Normality (N)

NO. of gm equivalent of solute Volume of solution in liter/dm3 Amount of solute in gm 1 gm eq. w.t of solute

No. of gm equivalent of solute =

1 gm eq. w.t of solute =

Molecular w.t of solute Acidity / Basicity / e- loss or gain

Units: Normal or gm equivalent per liter

V)

Mole Fraction (x)

Mole ratio of a component with whole solution. e.g A solution composed of solute A & solvent B Mole fraction of solute XA = nA nA + nB nB nA +

Mole fraction of solvent XB =

nB

XA + XB = 1 , no unit To obtain mole percent we simply multiply mole fraction by 100.

VI)

Parts per Million : (ppm)

It is number of parts of solute which are present in a million parts of solution

ppm =

Amount of solute in mg Volume of solution in liter

ppm =

Amount of solute in g Volume of solution in ml = Molarity x Molecular w.t x 1000

ppm

Molarity =

NO. of moles Volume of solution in liter Amount in g Molecular w.t

x Amount in g NO. of moles x 1000

NO. of moles =

ppm

NO. of moles Volume in liter =

ppm

Amount in g x 1000 Volume in liter Amount in mg Volume in liter

ppm

 ppm = Normality x Equivalent w.t x 1000 Normality = NO. of g eq. w.t Volume of solution in liter NO. of g eq. w.t = Amount in g Equivalent w.t Amount in g x 1000 NO. of g eq w.t

ppm

NO. of g eq w.t x Volume in liter

ppm

Amount in g x 1000 Volume in liter Amount in mg Volume in liter

ppm

Q. Which concentration is used when we want temperature independent criteria?

 NUMERICAL
If 24.5 g of H2SO4 has been dissolved in 250 g of water resulted 300 ml of solution. Write down names of solute & solvent and calculate Molarity, Molality, Normality, Mole fraction of solute, w/w %, w/v % and concentration of solution in ppm?

Data:
Amount of H2SO4 = 24.5 g (solute) Amount of water = 250 g = 0.25 kg (solvent) Volume of solution = 300ml =0.3 liter 1 gm Mol w.t of H2SO4 = 98 g 1 gm Eq. w.t of H2SO4 = 98 g = 49 g 2

Solution: NO. of mole of H2SO4 = 24.5 = 0.25 moles 98 NO. of mole of water = 250 18 = 13.88 moles

Molarity = 0.25 moles = 0.83 M or Molar 0.3 liter Molality = 0.25 moles = 1 m or Molal 0.25 kg

Normality NO. of Eq w.t of H SO = 24.5 = 0.5 equivalent 49 Normality = 0.5 equivalent = 1.66 N or Normal 0.3 liter
2 4

Mole fraction of H SO
2

X H SO =
2 4

0.25 0.25 + 13.88

= 0.017

w/w %

24.5 x 100 = 8.92 w/w % 24.5 + 250 g = 24.5 g x 100 = 8.16 w/v % 300 ml

w/v %

ppm ppm = 24.5 g x 1000 0.3 liter ppm = 0.83 ppm = 1.66 x 98 x 1000 x 49 x 1000 = 81666 ppm

= =

81666 ppm 81666 ppm

Physical Properties
Properties of a substance depend on the intermolecular forces, which depends upon internal structure. These properties do not involve chemical changes. Additive property: When a property of a molecule is equal to sum of that property of constituent atoms. e.g molecular mass. Constitutive property: When a property of a molecule depends on the arrangement of atoms and bond structure in molecule. e.g M.P, B.P, Optical activity, Heat of vaporization, density etc. Additive & constitutive property: An additive property which also depend upon the intermolecular structure e.g Surface tension, Viscosity and vapour pressure

SURFACE TENSION
It is the measure of force per unit length acting at a tangent to the meniscus surface. Surface tension is the amount of work required to extend a liquid surface. Symbol = Units: In CGS system = dyne/cm In SI system = N/m

Cohesion
Water clings to polar molecules through hydrogen bonding
Cohesion refers to attraction to other water molecules.
responsible for surface tension
a measure of the force necessary to stretch or break the surface of a liquid

Q. Compare the surface tension of hexane water and mercury?

Q. What will be the effect of temperature on surface tension?

Methods for determination of Surface tension

1) Capillary rise method. 2) Drop formation method. (i) Drop weight method (ii) Drop number method 3) Ring detachment method. 4) Maximum bubble pressure method.

(i) Capillary rise Method: acting along the inner circumference of the tube exactly supports the weight of liquid column.
Upward force = Downward force 2 r = mg 2 r = v d g = r2 h d g 2 r = rhdg 2

Capillary action
ks n a en h t g l Al ydro g! h din o t on b

water evaporates from leaves = transpiration

adhesion, cohesion and capillary action

water taken up by roots

(ii) Drop formation method: Drop supported by the upward force of surface tension acting at outer circumference of the tube Upward force = Downward force 2 r = mg The apparatus employed is called stalagmometer or drop pipette. A. Drop weight method: For sample liquid 2 r = mg For water 2 r w = mwg Divide equations 2 r = mg 2 r w mwg = m w mw = m w mw w = 72.0 dynes/cm

B. Drop number method:

Volume of one drop of liquid = Mass of one drop of liquid = m = v d
n

v n

= w = w = w =

m mw (v/n) d (v/nw)dw nw d n dw nw d w n dw

VISCOSITY

Viscosity of a liquid is a measure of its frictional resistance. It is internal frictional resistance force to flow F A dV dx

F = A dV dx = F dx A dV Force of resistance per unit area, which will cause unit velocity difference b/w two adjacent layers of a liquid at a unit distance from each other. Reciprocal of viscosity is called fluidity () = 1 Units : = F dx A dV = mass length x time -2 length2

length length time-1 Kgm-1S-1 SI System

= mass x length-1 x time-1

gCm-1S-1 = poise CGS System

Measurement of viscosity by Ostwalds method

dt w w w = kdt = k d w tw = kdt k dw tw = dt dw tw = dt w dw tw

w = 0.0101 poise

VAPOUR PRESSURE
Liquid Vaporization Gaseous Condensation At equilibrium, Rate of vaporization = Rate of condensation

The pressure exerted by the vapours in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid at a specified temperature called vapour pressure at that temperature. It is the measure of tendency of a substance to evaporate.

Vapour pressure

1 Intermolecular force

At 60 degree C Ethanol = 350 torr, water= 150 torr Vapour pressure Temperature At 80 degree C Ethanol = 730 torr, water = 410 torr Boiling point is the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure or surrounding pressure So, Boiling point Atmospheric pressure e.g high altitude areas, pressure cooker

Q. Why at high altitude areas rate of cooking is slow?

Q. Why cooking is fast in pressure cooker?

BUFFER SOLUTION
A solution which has tendency to reserve its pH 1) Acid buffer: Mixture of weak acid and its salts e.g (CH3COOH + CH3COONa), (HCOOH + HCOONa), ( C2H5COOH + C2H5COONa) Mechanism:
Addition of OH H2O ___________________________________________________________ Acidic Buffer CH3COOH partially dissociated CH3COO

H+

CH3COO + Na+ ___________________________________________________________ CH3COONa Addition of H+ CH3COOH

completely dissociated

 Case I : Addition of small amount of base (OH-)

The OH- ions added will react with H+ to form H2O. CH3COOH will ionize to compensate deficiency of H+ ions and hence pH of the solution remains constant.

Case II : Addition of small amount of acid (H+)

The H+ ion added will combine with CH3COO- to form CH3COOH. CH3COOH is a weak acid, which is very feebly ionized, and hence the concentration of H+ ion almost remain same and therefore the pH of the solution remains unaltered.

Henderson Equation for acid buffer:

Ka CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+

Ka = [H+][CH3COO-] [CH3COOH] [H+] = Ka [CH3COOH] [CH3COO-] [H+] = Ka [Acid] [Salt] log [H+] = log Ka log [Acid] [Salt] pH = pKa log [Acid] [Salt]

pH =

pKa + log [Salt] [Acid] [Salt] [Acid]

pH

If [salt] = [Acid]

then log [salt] = log 1 = 0 [Acid] So pH = pka

2) Basic buffer : Mixture of weak base and its salt e.g (NH OH + NH Cl)
4 4

Mechanism:
Addition of H+ H2O ___________________________________________________________ Basic Buffer NH4OH NH4Cl partially dissociated completely dissociated NH4+ + OH

NH4+ + Cl ___________________________________________________________ Addition of OH

NH4OH

 Case I : Addition of small amount of acid (H+)

The H+ ion added will combine with OH- to form H2O molecule. . NH4OH will ionize to compensate deficiency of OH- ions and hence pH of the solution remains constant.

Case II : Addition of small amount of base (OH-)

The OH- ions added will react with NH4+ to form NH4OH. Ammonium hydroxide is a weak base, which is very feebly ionized, and hence the concentration of OH- ions almost remain same and therefore the pH of the solution remains unaltered.

Henderson equation for Basic Buffer:

Kb NH4OH Kb = [NH4+] [OH-] [NH4OH] Kb Kb [NH4OH] [NH4+] [Base] [Salt] NH4+ + OH-

[OH-] =

[OH-] =

log [OH] = log Kb log [Base] [Salt]

pOH =

pKb log [Base] [Salt]

pOH = pKb + log [Salt] [Base]

pOH [Salt] [Base] If [Salt]=[Base] then log [Salt] = log 1= 0 [Base] So pOH= pkb

 NUMERICAL

A chemist desire to prepared 300 ml of a buffer solution at pH = 9. How many grams of NH4Cl have to be added to 0.20 M NH3 to make such a buffer. pKb value of ammonia is 4.75 ?

Solution:
pH = 9 pOH = 14 pH = 14 9 = 5 pOH = pKb + log [Salt] [Base] 5 = 4.75 + log [NH4Cl] [NH3] 5 4.75 = log [NH4Cl] log [NH3] 0.25 = log [NH4Cl] log 0.20 log [NH4Cl] = 0.25 0.698 log [NH4Cl] = 0.448 [NH4Cl] = Antilog ( 0.448) [NH4Cl] = 0.356 M

Amount = Molarity Mol w.t Volume (liter) Amount of [NH4Cl] = 0.356 53.5 300 1000
Amount of [NH4Cl] = 5.71 g

 NUMERICAL

Find out the pH of a 200 ml buffer solution containing 2.88 g of CH3COONa and 1.8 g of CH3COOH While ka for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10 -5 ?

Solution:
Volume of solution = 200 ml = 0.2 liter A. Sodium Acetate Amount of CH3COONa = 2.88 g NO. of mole of CH3COONa = 2.88 g = 0.035 mole 82 g/mole Molarity of CH3COONa = 0.035 mole = 0.175 M 0.2 liter B. Acetic Acid Amount of CH3COOH = 1.8 g NO. of mole of CH3COOH = 1.8 g = 0.03 mole 60 g/mole Molarity of CH3COOH = 0.03 mole = 0.15 M 0.2 liter

pH = pka + log [Salt] [Acid] pH = pka + log [CH3COONa] [CH3COOH]

pH = - log(1.8 10-5) + log 0.175 0.15 pH = 4.74 + log 0.175 log 0.15 pH = 4.74 0.69 + 0.82 pH = 4.87