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Subjects
The sampling units for an experiment, usually human respondents who provide measures based on the experimental manipulation.
Independent Variables
Experimental conditions One of the possible levels of an experimental (independent) variable manipulation. Blocking variables Variables included in the statistical analysis as a way of controlling or accounting for variance due to that variable: Categorical variables
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EXHIBIT 12.1
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Main Effect
The experimental difference in dependent variable means between the different levels of any single experimental variable.
Interaction Effect
Differences in dependant variable means due to a specific combination of independent variables.
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EXHIBIT 12.2
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EXHIBIT 12.3
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K = (T1)(T2)..(Tm)
Repeated Measures
Experiments in which an individual subject is exposed to more than one level of an experimental treatment.
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Demand Characteristic
An experimental design element or procedure that unintentionally provides subjects with hints about the research hypothesis.
Demand Effect
Occurs when demand characteristics actually affect the dependent variable.
Hawthorne Effect
People will perform differently from normal when they know they are experimental subjects.
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Constancy of Conditions
Subjects in all experimental groups are exposed to identical conditions except for the differing experimental treatments.
Counterbalancing
Attempts to eliminate the confounding effects of order of presentation by varying the order of presentation (exposure) of treatments to subject groups.
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Laboratory Experiment
A situation in which the researcher has more complete control over the research setting and extraneous variables.
Field Experiments
Research projects involving experimental manipulations that are implemented in a natural environment.
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EXHIBIT 12.5
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Within-Subjects Design
Involves repeated measures because with each treatment the same subject is measured.
Between-Subjects Design
Each subject receives only one treatment combination. Usually advantageous although they are usually more costly. Validity is usually higher.
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EXHIBIT 12.6
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Internal Validity
The extent that an experimental variable is truly responsible for any variance in the dependent variable. Does the experimental manipulation truly cause changes in the specific outcome of interest?
Manipulation Checks
A validity test of an experimental manipulation to make sure that the manipulation does produce differences in the independent variable.
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History
Maturation
Mortality
Internal Validity
Testing
Selection
Instrumentation
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History Effect
Occurs when some change other than the experimental treatment occurs during the course of an experiment that affects the dependent variable. Cohort Effect A change in the dependent variable that occurs because members of one experimental group experienced different historical situations than members of other experimental groups.
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Maturation Effects
Effects that are a function of time and the naturally occurring events that coincide with growth and experience.
Testing effects
A nuisance effect occurring when the initial measurement or test alerts or primes subjects in a way that affects their response to the experimental treatments.
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Instrumentation Effect
A change in the wording of questions, a change in interviewers, or a change in other procedures causes a change in the dependent variable.
Selection
The selection effect is a sample bias that results from differential selection of respondents for the comparison groups, or a sample selection error.
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Extraneous Variable
History Uncontrollable events occurring in the environment between before and after measurements
Maturation Changes in subjects during the course of the experiment Testing A before measure that alerts or sensitizes subject to the nature of experiment or second measure.
Example
A major employer closes its plant in test market area.
A questionnaire about the traditional role of women triggers enhanced awareness of females in an experiment.
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Extraneous Variable
Instrument Changes in instrument result in response bias
Example
New questions about women are interpreted differently from earlier questions.
Selection Sample selection error because of differential selection comparison groups Mortality Sample attrition; some subjects withdraw from experiment
Control group and experimental group is self-selected group based on preference for soft drinks
Subjects in one group of a hair dying study marry rich widows and move to Florida
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External Validity
The accuracy with which experimental results can be generalized beyond the experimental subjects. Student surrogates: Atypical?
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Laboratory Experiment
Field Experiment
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Quasi-experimental Designs
Experimental designs that do not involve random allocation of subjects to treatment combinations.
One Shot Design (After Only): X O1 One Group Pretest Posttest: O1 X O2 Static Group Design: Experimental X O1 Control O2
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EXHIBIT 12.7
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EXHIBIT 12.8
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Factorial
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Blocking Variable
A categorical variable that is expected to be associated with different values of a dependent variable for each group. It effectively controls for an extraneous cause in experimental analysis.
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EXHIBIT 12.9
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Factorial Design
An experiment that investigates the interaction of two or more independent variables on a single dependent variable.
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EXHIBIT 12.10
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Main effect
The influence of a single independent variable on a dependent variable.
Interaction effect
The influence on a dependent variable by combinations of two or more independent variables. Interaction occurs if the effect of one treatment differs at various levels of the other treatment.
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EXHIBIT 12.11
A 2 2 Factorial Design That Illustrates the Effects of Sex and Ad Content on Believability
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EXHIBIT 12.12
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