ELECTROMAGNETISM 2

Chapter 1 AC circuits 10 hrs

Chapter 2 Electromechanics 10 hrs
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic waves 15 hrs
1
2
The aim of the course is to provide the students with knowledge of electrical
engineering such as AC circuits, motors and generators, propagation and properties of
electromagnetic waves. After the course, the students will be able to understand the
principle of operation of electrical circuits, devices and equipments used in technology
and the daily life.
3
REFERENCES
[1] Giorgio Rizzoni - Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering - McGraw-Hill Higher
Education (2009)
[2] S.A. Reza Rekavat - Electrical Engineering Pearson (2012)
[3]William H. Hayt, Jr., John A. Buck Engineering Electromagnetics 7
th
Edition -
McGraw-Hill Higher Education (2006)
[4] K.A. Gangadhar, P.M. Ramanathan Field Theory Khanna Publishers 14
th

Edition (2000)
Chapter 1 AC circuits
1.1. Fundamentals of electric circuits: Ohms law, Kirchhoffs laws
1.2. Capacitors and inductors
1.3. Transient analysis
1.4. Steady-state AC analysis: phasors, impedances, power
1.5. Frequency analysis
1.6. Power systems and transmission lines

4
1.1. Fundamentals of electric circuits
Ohms law The voltage across the terminals of an ideal resistor
is directly proportional to the current passing through that
terminal

where R is the resistance of the resistor.
For a closed circuit consisting of a source and a load, we have

where is the electromotive force (emf) of the source and
is the total resistance of the circuit.


5
v i R =
IR = E
E R


Kirchhoffs current law (KCL).
-A node is the connecting point of two (or more) elements of a circuit. .
A branch represents a circuit element that is located between any two nodes in a
circuit. .







Definition of a node and branch in an electric circuit.


- KCL The net current entering a node in a circuit is zero.
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents
leaving that node.


KCL results from the law of the conservation of charge: Charges are always moving in a
circuit and cannot be stored at a point; charge can neither be destroyed nor created. .




6
0
k
k
i =

Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) ..

- A loop is a closed path that starts at a node, proceeds through some circuit
elements, and returns to the starting node. In other words, a loop is formed by tracing
a closed path in a circuit without passing through any node more
than once. .

Loop definition - Path 1 is a loop but Path 2 is not.

7
The polarity of voltage across each element follows the direction of the currents
through that element as shown in the figure. When voltages rise, the polarity
changes from negative to positive; when voltages drop, the polarity changes
from positive to negative.
-KVL The algebraic sum of the voltages equals zero for any loop in an electrical
circuit.
0
k
k
v =

1.2. Capacitors and inductors

1.2.1. Capacitors
A capacitor consists of an insulating material, the dielectric, sandwiched between two
conductors.
The charge on a capacitor, q ( t ), is the product of the capacitance and voltage:

By definition, current is the derivative of charge with respect to time
then . The charge-current relationship is
with - the initial charge of the capacitor at . The voltage across the
capacitor is


We see that the current is a linear function of the voltage.








8
( ) ( )
q t C v t =
( )
( )
d
d
q t
i t
t
=
( )
( )
d
d
v t
i t C
t
= ( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
' d '
t
t
q t i t t q t = +
}
( )
0
q t
0
t t =
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
0 0
0
0
1 1
' d ' ' d '
t t
t t
q t
v t i t t i t t v t
C C C
= + = +
} }
The instantaneous power equals voltage times current ..
The stored power by a capacitor corresponds to .
The energy stored in or delivered by a capacitor is

9
( ) ( ) ( )
p t v t i t =
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
dq t dv t
p t v t Cv t
dt dt
= =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 0
2
1
' d ' ' ' d '
2
t t
t t
E t p t t Cv t dv t t Cv t = = =
} }
The linearity of a function consists of two properties: additivity and homogeneity.
Therefore, a function is considered linear if it meets both conditions:
Additivity
Homogeneity
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
f x x f x f x + = +
( ) ( )
f x f x o o =
( )
f x
10
11
12
q
i
t
A
= =
A
Load
13
1.2.2. Inductors
An inductor is a passive element that stores energy
in its magnetic field. It consists of a coil of wire that
is wrapped around a core.
In an inductor, the flux is proportional to the current: ..
The induced voltage corresponds to (in case the
inductance L does not depend on the current).
The current is .
We see that the voltage is a linear function of the current as soon as the inductance
does not depend on the current
( ) ( )
t Li t | =
( )
( ) ( )
d d
d d
t i t
v t L
t t
|
= =
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
1
' d '
t
t
i t v t t i t
L
= +
}
Inductor in series:
Inductors in parallel:
14
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
d
d
i t
p t v t i t Li t
t
= =
( ) ( )
( )
( )
0
2
d '
1
' d '
d ' 2
t
t
i t
E t L i t t Li t
t
= =
}
( )
0
0 i t = const. L =
eq i
i
L L =

1
eq
1
i
i
L
L

| |
=
|
\ .

The power delivered to an inductor is

The energy delivered to the inductor is


assuming that the initial current and the inductance
15
1.3. Transient analysis
16
Electrical devices may exhibit a transient response when switched ON or OFF due to
the presence of capacitance and inductance.

1.3.1. RC circuits

1.3.1.1. Charging a capacitor through a resistor
Consider the RC circuit as shown in the figure. The source is connected to the circuit
through a switch that is closed at time .
0 t =
Assuming the initial voltage across the capacitor is zero , KVL can be used
to find the voltage across the capacitor for as , or

.. , , or......

Integrating both sides, we obtain . ..

17
( )
0 0
C
v

=
( ) ( )
s
0
C
V Ri t v t = 0 t >
( )
( )
s
d
0
d
C
C
v t
V RC v t
t
=
( )
( )
s
d
1
d
C
C
v t
t
v t V RC
=

( )
( )
( )
0 0
s
d
1
d
C
v t t
C
C
v t
t
v t V RC
+ +
=

} }
'
'
'
The result corresponds to
( )
( )
( )
s
s
1
0
0
C
C
v t V
t
RC v V
+
+
| |

= |
|

\ .
ln
To complete the solution and find , the value of the initial voltage, ,
must be known. Note that is the time just before the switch is closed, and
refers to the time right after the switch is closed, which is also the time
immediately after the (voltage) source is applied to the RC circuit. Due to the
presence of the resistor, within a short period of time, from to , the voltage
across the capacitor remains constant, . We finally obtain the
voltage .
The plot of the capacitors voltage is shown
in the figure. The voltage increases
exponentially from zero to V
s
.
18
( )
C
v t
( )
0
C
v
+
0

0
+
0

0
+
( ) ( )
0 0 0
C C
v v
+
= =
( )
s
1
t
RC
C
v t V

| |
=
|
\ .
e
The voltage can be written in terms of the time constant of the RC circuit as
. When , we obtain .
When , . So, after these five time constants,
it can be said that the capacitor is completely charged.
The current flowing in the circuit is . The current at
. is and as tends to infinity, tends to zero, as seen in the
figure. Thus the equivalent circuit of the completely charged capacitor is an open
circuit.
19
RC t =
( )
1
s
1
C
v t V
t

| |
=
|
\ .
e
t t = ( )
( )
1
s s
1 0 6321
C
v V V t

= = e .
( )
( )
5
s s
1 0 9933
C
v V V t

= = e . 5 t t =
( )
( )
s
d
d
/
e
t
V t V
i t C
t R
t
= =
0 t
+
=
s
V R / t
( )
i t
Consider the circuit shown in the figure. When a
voltage is applied to the to the capacitor for
several time constants prior to t = 0, the capacitor is
considered fully charged to an initial value
of v i (I, (i. e. , ..) . Then, at time t = 0, the
switch closes and the current flows through the
resistor, discharging the capacitor. .

20
i
v
( )
0
C
v v

=
i
1.3.1.2. Discharge of a capacitor through a resistor
Note that the current that flows through the capacitor is the opposite of the current
that flows through the resistor, that is, i C ( t ) = - i R ( . Thus, applying KCL to the
circuit yields , which can be rewritten as . . ...
Integrating yields . .
The voltage across the capacitor cannot change suddenly. Thus, .
Then, ..... .................. ......, or . ,.
At t=0, the current through the resistor corresponds to ...
In other words, the fully charged capacitor is equivalent to a voltage source .
21
( ) ( )
C R
i t i t =
( ) ( )
0
C C
dv t v t
C
dt R
+ =
( )
( )
d
d
C
C
v t
t
v t RC
=
( )
( )
( )
1
0
0
C
C
v t
t
RC v
+
+
= ln
( ) ( )
i
0 0
C C
v v v
+
= =
( )
i
C
v t
t
v RC
| |
=
|
\ .
ln
( )
1 1
i i
RC
C
v t v v
t

= = e e
( )
i
0 i v R = /
i
v v =
22
23
24
25
26
27
V
s

0 t =
1.3.2. RL circuits .
1.3.2.1. Charging an inductor through a resistor
Consider the RC circuit as shown in the figure. The source is connected to the circuit
through the switch S
1
that is closed at time , the switch S
2
is kept open .
28
Using KVL, we obtain , or .
Integrating both sides gives . Because ,
then . Thus the current through the inductor corresponds to
................................................ . , where is the time constant of the LR
circuit.
s
d
0
d
i
V iR L
t
=
( )
( )
s
di t V
L i t R
dt R
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
( )
( )
0 0
s
d
d
'
'
'
i t t
i t
R
t
V
L
i t
R
+ +
=

} }
( ) ( )
0 0 0 i i
+
= =
( )
1 ln
R R
i t t
L L
| |
=
|
\ .
( )
s s
1 1 e e
t R
t
L
V V
i t
R R
t
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
/ L R t =
The charging transient of the RL circuit is
shown in the figure. We see that at t=0,
the inductor is equivalent to an open
circuit . But when fully charged (i.e. ,
when t) it is equivalent to a short
circuit. The current through the inductor
is .
29
s
s
V
i
R
=
30
Consider the circuit shown in the figure. Prior to
t = 0, the switch S
1
connects the DC source to
the RL circuit and stays in this position for a long
time period. As a result, the inductor is fully
charged to .
V
s

s
i
0 t = At , the switch S
1
is opened and the switch S
2
is closed. The inductor begins to
discharge through the resistor. Replacing for and ,
and using the KCL equation , we obtain . By
integrating , we obtain . Because, after a long time, the inductor
acts as a short circuit, the entire current will flow through it. Now, because the current
through the inductor does not change immediately, that is, .
As a result, .
( )
( )
di
d
L
L
t
v t L
t
=
( ) ( )
R R
v t Ri t =
( ) ( )
L R
i t i t =
( )
( )
d
0
d
L
L
i t
L i t R
t
+ =
( )
( )
0
ln
L
L
i t
R
t
L i
+
| |
= |
|
\ .
( ) ( )
s
0 0
L L
i i i
+
= =
( )
s s
/
e e
t t
L R
L
i t I I
t

= =
1.3.2.2. Discharging an inductor through a resistor

31
1.3.3. DC Steady state
The previous sections outlined first-order RC and RL circuits. Expressions were
obtained for the voltage and current variations with time for both charging and
discharging scenarios. The capacitor charging equation corresponds to:
( )
s s
/
e
t
C
v t V V
t
=
The right-hand side of this equation consists of two terms. The second term, ,
is the transient term and it decays to zero. The first term, , is called the steady
state or the final value and it is defined as the voltage across the capacitor as t tends
to infinity. The same concept is applied to the inductor charging equation
s
/
e
t
V
t
( )
s s
/
e
t
L
i t i i
t
=
Here, i
s
is the steady-state current.
s
V
1.4. AC circuits analysis
32
In this section we introduce the analysis of circuits excited by sinusoidal voltages and
currents. Sinusoidal or AC signals constitute the most most important class of signals
in the analysis of electrical circuits. The simplest reason is that virtually all of the
electric power used in households and industries comes in the form of sinusoidal
voltages and currents.
A generalized sinusoid is defined as ,
where A is the amplitude, - the radian frequency , and u
- the phase.
The root-mean-square, or rms, value of the signal is defined
as .
( ) ( )
cos x t A t e u = +
( )
2
rms
0
1
' '
T
x x t dt
T
=
}
1.4.1. Sinusoidal voltages and currents
In Vietnam, AC power in residential wiring is distributed as a 50 Hz, 220 V sinusoid. Note that,
here, 220 V is the rms value, and not the peak value. The rms value is also called the effective
value . If the AC voltage is , then the rms value of the voltage is
.
33
( ) ( )
m
cos v t V t e u = +
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
rms m m
0 0
1 1
d 1 2 2 d
2
cos cos
T T
V V t t V t t
T T
e u e u = + = + +
} }
The integral of over one period is zero; thus, what is left is the
integral over d t from zero to T, which is T . This leads to the final result of:
( )
2 2 cos t e u +
m
rms
2
V
V =
Similarly , rms value of the alternative current is .
m
rms
2
I
I =
1.4.2. Instantaneous and average power
34
The instantaneous power delivered by the voltage source to the resistor, R,
corresponds to: , where . Then, .
The average power corresponds to and .
This can also be written as .

( ) ( ) ( )
p t v t i t =
( )
( )
v t
i t
R
= ( )
( )
2
v t
p t
R
=
( )
av
0
1
d
T
P p t t
T
=
}
2 2
rms m
av
2 2
V V
P
R
= =
2
av rms
P R I =
Circuit with a resistive load
Phasors are complex numbers represented in the polar domain. Phasors are used to
characterize sinusoidal voltages or currents. Considering a sinusoidal voltage
..........................................., its phasor is defined as . .
Based on Euler's formula .............................., we have .............................and
................................ Equivalently :,..................................................................................
35
( ) ( )
m
cos v t V t e u = +
m m
e
i
V V V
u
u = Z =
e cos sin
i
j
u
u u = + { } cos Re e
ju
u =
sin Im{e }
ju
u =
( ) ( )
( )
( )
m m
m
= = { }
= { }
cos Re e
Re e e
j t
j j t
v t V t V
V
e u
u e
e u
+
+
Thus , where V is the phasor of v(t). The magnitude of a phasor
equals the peak value and its angle equals the phase of the sinusoid in cosine form. If
a sinusoidal signal is represented in sine form, it should be converted into cosine form.
( )
{ } Re e
j t
v t V
e
=
1.4.3. Phasors
This chapter focuses on the study of linear circuits. In the steady-state analysis of linear circuits,
the frequency of the voltage across and current flow through any given element does not change.
As a result, the information of amplitude and phase of a voltage or current, that is, its phasor, are
sufficient to characterize that voltage or current. Note that linear circuits consist of linear
elements, which maintain a linear relationship between current and voltage.
36
Example
The phasor for the voltage is .
The phasor for the voltage is .


( )
( )
o
1
150 120 30 cos v t t t = +
o
1
150 30 V = Z
( )
( )
o
1
312 120 45 sin v t t t = +
( )
o o o
2
312 45 90 312 45 V = Z = Z
Phasors in additive sinusoids ..................................
37
Sinusoids can be added by adding their phasors. As an example, assume the following:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 m1 1
2 m2 2
cos
cos
v t V t
v t V t
e u
e u
= +
= +
Next, calculate . The phasors for and are
respectively and . Because:
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
v t v t v t = +
( )
1
v t ( )
2
v t
1 m1 1
V V u = Z
2 m2 2
V V u = Z
( )
( )
1 1
2 2
{ }
{ }
Re e
Re e
j t
j t
v t V
v t V
e
e
=
=
Therefore,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
= = { } { }= { }
= { + }= { + }
Re e Re e Re e
Re e e Re e
j t j t j t
j t j t j t
v t v t v t V V V
V V V V
e e e
e e e
+ +
Accordingly, the addition of sinusoids is converted into the addition of complex
numbers .
1 2
V V V = +
38
Example
Assume
( )
( )
( )
( )
o
1
o
2
=5 45
=10 30
cos
cos
v t t
v t t
e
e
+
+
Calculate ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
v t v t v t = +
Solution
The phasors of and , respectively, are and .
( )
1
v t
( )
2
v t
o
1
5 45 V = Z
o
2
10 30 V = Z
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
o o
1 2
o o o o
2 2
1
o
=5 45 10 30
=5 45 5 45 10 30 10 30
=5 0.707+ 5 0 707 10 0 866 10 0 5 3.54+ 3.54+8.66+ 5
=12.2+ 8.54
8.54
= 12 2 8.54
12.2
=14.89 34.99
cos sin cos sin
. . .
. tan
V V
j j
j j j j
j

+ Z + Z
+ + +
+ + =
| |
+ Z
|
\ .
Z
Then, ( )
( )
o
14.89 34.99 cos v t t e = +
39
1.4.4. Complex impedances
In the context of steady-state AC circuits, resistors, capacitors, and inductors are
described using a parameter called impedance that is viewed as a complex resistance
that changes with frequency.
1.4.4.1. The impedance of a resistor
Consider that the source is applied to a resistor. According to Ohms
law, the current flowing through resistor R is .

( )
cos
R
v t A t e =
( )
( )
cos
R
R
v t
A
i t t
R R
e = =
Using phasors to express voltage and current .
( )
o o
0 0 ;
R R
A
V A i t
R
= Z = Z
The impedance of the resistor is defined as the ratio of the phasor voltage
across the resistor to the phasor current . The current flowing
through and the voltage across resistors are in phase.
o
o
0
0
R
R
R
V A
Z
A
I
R
Z
= =
Z
R
Z R =
40
1.4.4.2. The impedance of an inductor
The relationship of voltage and current for an ideal inductor corresponds to:
( )
( )
d
d
L
L
i t
v t L
t
=
Let , then .
( )
cos
L
i t A t e = ( )
( )
d
d 2
sin cos
L
L
i t
v t L A L t A L t
t
t
e e e e
| |
= = = +
|
\ .
In other words, the voltage has a 90 (t/2 radian) lead with respect to the current
flowing through it. Accordingly, voltage and current phasors are:
0
2
L
L
I A
V A L
t
e
= Z
= Z
E quivalently, it can be shown that: 0
2
L
L
V A
I A L
t
e
= Z
= Z
In other words, if the voltage across an inductor is , then the current
will be .
( )
cos
L
v t A t e =
( ) ( ) ( )
2 / cos /
L
i t A L t e e t =
41
The impedance of the inductor is defined as:
L
Z
0
2 2 2
2
cos sin
L
L
L
V A
Z L L j j L
A
I
L
t t t
e e e
t
e
Z
| |
= = = Z = + =
|
\ .
Z
is also called the reactance of an inductor. j L e
42
1.4.4.3. The impedance of a capacitor
The relationship between voltage and current in an ideal capacitor is .
( )
( )
d
d
C
C
v t
i t C
t
=
Let , then
( )
cos
C
v t A t e =
( )
( ) ( )
( )
d d
d d
2
cos
sin cos
C
C
v t A t
i t C C
t t
C A t CA t
e
t
e e e e
= =
| |
= = +
|
\ .
The phasors of and are .
( )
C
v t
( )
C
i t 0
2
;
C C
V A I CA
t
e = Z = Z
In other words, in capacitors, the voltage across the capacitor lags the current through
it. The same voltagecurrent relationship can be established using:
( ) ( )
0
1
d
C C
v t i t t V
C
= +
}
43
The impedance of the capacitor is defined as . Then,
C
Z
C
C
C
V
Z
I
=
0 1 1 1 1
2 2 2
2
cos sin
C
A
Z j j
C C C j C
CA
t t t
t
e e e e
e
Z ( | | | |
= = Z = = =
| |
(
\ . \ .
Z
is also called the reactance of a capacitor.
1
j C e
From the previous results, for the impedance of resistors, inductors, and capacitors, it
can be seen that the relationship between the voltage and current phasors for each of
these impedances corresponds to . In the general case, can be combi-
nation of resistors, capacitors, and/or inductors. We see that the voltagecurrent
phasor relationship is similar to the instantaneous voltagecurrent relationship in the
resistors . However, in a general case, impedance is a complex
resistor consisting of a real part and an imaginary part.
V Z I = Z
( ) ( )
v t R i t =
44
The real part of this complex number represents the resistance and the imaginary part
of that represents the reactance.
45
1.4.4.4. Series connection of impedances
The total impedance of series-connected impedances shown in
the figure can be calculated using a method similar to that used
for series-connected resistors .
eq 1 2
1
...
n
n k
k
Z Z Z Z Z
=
= + + + =

The proof of this equation is very simple. Because the current flowing through all
impedances is the same, for any impedance , . Based on Kirchhoff's
voltage law, . As a result .
k
Z
k k
V Z I =
1 1
n n
k k
k k
V V Z I
= =
= =

eq
1
n
k
k
V
Z Z
I =
= =

46
Writing the phasor voltagecurrent rela-
tionship in the figure for each parallel
impedance, , results in .
k
Z
k
k
V
I
Z
=
Because the phasor voltage, , is constant across all impedances, the total current,
is , it can be shown that . In other
words, .

can be a resistor, a capacitor, an inductor or a combination of them.
V
1 1 1
eq
1
n n n
k
k k k
k k
V V
I I V
Z Z Z = = =
= = = =
eq
1
1
1
n
k
k
Z
Z
=
=

1
eq
1 1
n
k
k
Z Z =
=

k
Z
1.4.4.5. Parallel connection of impedances
47
1.4.5. Steady-state circuit analysis using phasors
In the steady state, all voltages and currents are sinusoids. Assuming a linear circuit,
the frequency of these sinusoids will be the same as the input signal frequency. Thus,
they can be represented by their corresponding phasors. In addition, circuit elements,
such as resistors, inductors, and capacitors, are represented by impedances. KVL and
KCL can be applied to the voltage and current in phasor form, respectively.
48
The procedure for steady-state analysis of circuits with sinusoidal sources is as follows:
1. Replace the instantaneous voltage and current source (s) (i.e., and )
with the corresponding phasors (i.e., V and I ).
2. Replace inductance, L , with the complex impedance ,
and capacitance, C , with the complex impedance

A resistor has impedance equal to its resistance .
3. Analyze the circuit using techniques similar to those used for resistive circuits, and
perform the calculation using complex arithmetic.
( )
i t
( )
v t
o
90
L
Z j L L e e = = Z
( ) ( )
o
1 1 1 90 / / /
C
Z j C j j C C e e e = = = Z
o
0
R
Z R R = = Z
49
50
51
52
53
1.4.6. AC steady-state power
This section discusses the power delivered by the
source to a general load that can be any RLC
network as shown in the figure.
A resistive load
The voltage is and the current is
with .
The instantaneous power is
( )
m
cos v t V t e =
( )
m
m
cos cos
V
i t t I t
R
e e = =
m
m
V
I
R
=
( ) ( ) ( )
2
m m
cos p t v t i t V I t e = =
For resistive loads, is always positive. Therefore, the energy flows continually
from the source to the resistance and is converted into heat.
( )
p t
54
An inductive load
The voltage is , then the vol-
tage phasor is . The current phasor
is ,
( )
m
cos v t V t e =
o
m
0 V V = Z
o o
o
m m
m o
0 0
90
90
V V V
I I
Z j L L e e
Z Z
= = = = Z
Z
where , . Accordingly, the time
domain current is . Thus, the instantaneous power is
m m m
/ / I V L V Z e = =
o
90 Z j L L e e = = Z
( )
( )
m
90
o
cos i t I t e =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
m m
m m
2
2
cos sin sin
V I
p t v t i t V I t t t e e e = = =
The power is positive one-half of the time when the energy flows from the source to
the inductance. The power is negative the other half of the time, and the energy
returns back to source from the inductance. Thus, the average power is zero.
55
A capacitance load
The voltage is , the the current
phasor will be
( )
m
cos v t V t e =
o o
o
m m
m
o
0 0
90
1 1
90
V V V
I I
Z
j C C e e
Z Z
= = = = Z
Z
where .
m m
m
1
V V
I
Z
C e
= =
Accordingly, .
( )
( )
( )
o
m m
90 cos sin i t I t I t e e = + =
Thus, the instantaneous power corresponds to .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
m m
2
2
sin
V I
p t v t i t t e = =
The current leads the voltage by 90. Therefore, the power is negative in one-half of
the cycle when the energy flows from the source to the capacitor. It is then positive in
the next half cycle when the energy returns back to the source from the capacitor.
Accordingly, the average power will be zero.
56
RLC load
The load that is a combination of resistance,
inductance, and capacitance is called a RLC load as
shown in the figure.
Here, the RLC load impedance can be represented by two components, the real
(resistive) and the imaginary (inductive/capacitive) components. In this case, if the
voltage is , then voltage phasor will be .

( ) ( )
m
cos
v
v t V t e u = +
m v
V V u = Z
The current phasor is , where ,
and . Accordingly, .
m
m
v
i
z
V V
I I
Z Z
u
u
u
Z
= = = Z
Z
m m
/ I V Z =
i v z
u u u =
Z R jX = + ( ) ( )
m
cos
i
i t I t e u = +
The instantaneous power is . ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
m m
cos cos
v i
p t v t i t V I t t e u e u = = + +
The power is calculated to be . ( ) ( ) ( )
m m m m
2
2 2
cos cos
v i v i
V I V I
p t t e u u u u = + + +
57
1.4.6.1. Average power
The average power is calculated by averaging the instantaneous power over one
period of the input signal. The average value of the first term in the previous is zero.
The average power (also called active power) corresponds to
( ) ( ) ( )
m m
rms rms
0
1
2
' ' cos cos
T
v i z
V I
P p t dt V I
T
u u u = = =
}
1.4.6.2. Power factor
The power factor (PF) is defined as , where is called the
power angle. Because , the power factor is indeed the ratio of the power
delivered to the load (customer) and the apparent power that is the multiplication of
rms voltage and current in the circuit . The power factor will be inductive or lagging
if current lags voltage (then is positive ); the power factor will be capacitive or
leading if current leads voltage (then is negative ) .
( )
PF=cos cos
z v i
u u u =
z
u
( )
1 cos
z
u s
z
u
z
u
58
1.4.6.3. Reactive power
In an AC circuit, the peak instantaneous power (its unit is VAR, voltamperereactive)
associated with the energy storage elements (inductance and capacitance) for an RLC
load is called reactive power , and corresponds to .
For a pure resistive load, , and .
For a pure inductive load, , and .
For a pure capacitive load, , and .
Accordingly, for a resistive load, the reactive power is zero, while it is maximum (mini-
mum) for an inductive (capacitive) load. Therefore, it is used to express the peak
instantaneous power that is associated with the inductance or capacitance. Note that
the instantaneous power across a load that contains energy storage elements
(inductance and capacitances) varies as voltage and current change.
( )
rms rms
sin
z
Q V I u =
0
z
u = 0 Q =
o
90
z
u =
rms rms
Q V I =
o
90
z
u =
rms rms
Q V I =
59
1.4.6.4. Complex power
The complex power is represented by , where the * refers to the complex
conjugate. Then . By converting the
terms from polar to rectangular coordinates, and replacing the maximum values with
their rms ones, we obtain .
comp
1
2
*
P VI =
( ) ( )
comp m m m m
1 1
2 2
*
v i v i
P V I V I u u u u = Z Z = Z
( ) ( )
comp rms rms rms rms
cos sin
z z
P V I jV I u u = +
The real part of corresponds to the average power
comp
P
( )
comp rms rms
{ }= Re cos
z
P P V I u =
The imaginary part corresponds to the reactive power ( )
comp rms rms
{ }= Im sin
z
Q P V I u =
As a result
comp
P P jQ = +
Now , for an RLC circuit, we have , where .
Then,
The average (active) power P and the reactive power Q , respectively, correspond to
and .
V I Z = e
z
j
z
Z Z Z R jX
u
u = Z = = +
2 2 2
comp m m m
1 1
2 2 2 2
*
e
z
j
z
Z Z
P I I I RI j XI
u
u = = Z = +
2 2
m rms
1
2
P RI RI = =
2 2
m rms
1
2
Q XI XI = =
60
1.4.6.5. Apparent power
Apparent power (its unit is VA, voltampere) is defined as the product of the effective
voltage and the effective current .
Actually, apparent power is the maximal average power that is delivered to the load.
This maximum power is delivered when the load is purely resistive.
From the definition of the average power, P, and the reactive power, Q, we have

In addition, apparent power represents the amplitude of the complex power. A
triangle, called the power triangle, can be used to express the relationship between
P, Q , apparent power, V
rms
I
rms
, and the power angle, u
z
, as shown in the figure
below .
rms rms
Apparent power=V I
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
rms rms rms rms rms rms
cos sin
z z
P Q V I V I V I u u + = + =
61
62
1.4.6.6. Power factor correction
The active power P represents the total power consumed by the consumer and the
reactive power Q represents the apparent power delivered to the consumer. The
power factor, , maintains the relationship of P and Q. If the power factor is small
(i.e., the case for inductive loads such as motors), the power company creates more
power than consumed by the customer. To avoid this problem, a power factor
correction is needed. That is we should increase the power factor to 1.
This can be easily achieved using the fact that this problem is mainly due to the
inductance of motor windings. The positive impedance of an inductive load can be
compensated using the negative impedance of a capacitive load.
cos
z
u
63
In other words, if a load contains inductance and capacitance with reactive powers of
equal magnitude, their reactive powers will cancel. Therefore, a general approach to
reduce the reactive power is to add capacitors in parallel with an inductance. This
increases the power factor.
64
65
66
67
68
69
1.5. Frequency analysis
This chapter focuses on study of the characteristics of capacitors and inductors when
an AC with different (varying) frequencies is applied to circuits. These circuits are used
as filters. Filters are devices that allow signals with particular frequencies to pass,
while rejecting signals with other frequencies. Based on the behavior of these filters in
different frequencies, they may even change the structure of a signal at the output.
The frequency response represents what frequencies appear at the output with what
amplitudes.
70
A filter transfer function it is the ratio of the filter output (voltage or current measured
at one port) to the input (voltage or current measured at the second port), and it is a
function of frequency, f . Thus, a filter can be represented by a two-port system like
the one shown in the figure. The transfer function is useful to determine (and plot)
the frequency response of a filter. Frequency response represents the gain and the
phase shift of a filter or network as a function of frequency.
Consider the two-port filter shown in the figure,
which consists of input and output ports. The
transfer function, , of a two-port filter is
defined as . Because and
( )
H f
( )
out
in
V
H f
V
=
out
V
are phasors (complex numbers), is also complex.
in
V
( )
H f
71
72
1.5.1.1. Low-pass filters
Low-pass filters allow low-frequency components to pass and block high-frequency
components. An RC (resistorcapacitor) first-order, low-pass filter is presented in
Figure a, and an RL (resistorinductor) first-order, low-pass filter is shown in Figure b.
Consider the RC low-pass filter shown
in Figure a. Using the voltage divider
technique, the voltage at the output
corresponds to
out in
1
2
1 2 /
j fC
V V
R j fC
t
t
=
+
The transfer function is . ( )
1
1 2
H f
j fRC t
=
+
1.5.1. First- order filters
73
Similarly, for the RL low-pass filter shown in Figure b, .
( )
1
1 2 /
H f
j fL R t
=
+
In the equations for H(f), we define and . Then, these equa-
tions can be replaced by , where is called the break
frequency . It is also known as the half-power frequency or the corner frequency.
These two names are derived from the Bode plot. It is called the corner frequency
because it is located at the intersection of the two asymptotes. It is called the half-
power frequency because at this frequency, only half of the incoming power is
available at the output. Note that . Thus, the gain of power at
this frequency is .
B
1
2
f
RC t
=
B
2
R
f
L t
=
( )
( )
B
1
1 /
H f
j f f
=
+
B
f
( )
10 1 2 3dB log / =
3dB
74
Magnitude and phase plot
The frequency response has a complex nature. Any complex variable has magnitude
and phase. When plotting the frequency response of a filter, the magnitude and phase
are plotted separately for clarity. For the RC low-pass filter, the magnitude is
( )
( )
2
B
1
1 /
H f
f f
=
+
The phase is given by . The magnitude and phase of the
frequency response are plotted in the figures below.
( )
1
B
tan
f
H f
f

| |
Z =
|
\ .
75
76
77
78
79
80
Decibels
To compare the performance of different filters, the magnitude is often
expressed in decibels . The decibel (dB) is a convenient way of displaying very large or
small values on the same plot. Because a filter magnitude can achieve large and small
values, depending on the frequency, the decibel is the method of choice for
expressing filter magnitudes. The decibel corresponds to .
( )
H f
( ) ( )
10
dB
20log H f H f =
Likewise, the magnitude can be expressed in terms of its dB as ( )
H f
( )
( )
dB
20
10
/ H f
H f =
Note: Because the transfer function is the ratio of two voltages (or currents),
the logarithm is multiplied by 20. For the ratio of two powers, multiply the logarithm
by 10.
( )
H f
81
Bode plot
A Bode plot is a commonly used technique for plotting a frequency response across
a large range of frequency values. The Bode plot for amplitude for a low-pass filter
is drawn by using .
The frequency scale uses a logarithmic scale, that is, it is sketched in terms of
and the magnitude is expressed in decibels. The Bode plots for the magnitude and the
phase of a low-pass filter are shown in the figure below.
( ) ( )
2
10
dB
B
20 10 1 log log
f
H f H f
f
| |
| |
| = = +
|
|
\ .
\ .
( )
B
log / f f
82
83
84
1.5.1.2. High-pass filters
A high-pass passes high-frequency components and blocks low frequencies. Two
models for first-order, high-pass filters are shown in the figures below.
The phasor of the current, I , in Figure a corresponds to
in
1
2
V
I
R
j fC t
=
+
The phasor of the output voltage, , is then given by
out
V
in in
out
2
1
1 2
2
V R V j fRC
V I R
j fRC
R
j fC
t
t
t

= = =
+
+
85
The function corresponds to . Given ,
The transfer function corresponds to .
( )
out
in
2
1 2
V j fRC
H f
V j fRC
t
t
= =
+
B
1 2 / f RC t =
( )
( )
( )
B
out
in B
1
/
/
j f f
V
H f
V j f f
= =
+
86
87
88
1.5.1.3. Cascaded filters
A cascaded network is created by connecting the output of one two-port network to
the input of another two-port network (see the figure ). The transfer function of the
cascaded filter network corresponds to
( ) ( ) ( )
out2 out1 out2 out1 out2
1 2
in1 in1 out1 in1 in2
V V V V V
H f H f H f
V V V V V
= = = =
89
1.5.2. Second order filters
An RLC combination can be used to create band-pass and band-stop filters. These
filters are known as second-order filters, because the voltage and current through
these combinations is represented by a second-order differential equation. Two
popular resonant circuits are parallel and series RLC circuits.
1.5.2. 1. Band-pass filters
RLC filters can be formed by arranging the components in two methods: parallel and
series.
90
Parallel resonance
A parallel resonance RLC band-pass filter is shown in Figure 7.17 . The resonance
frequency is the frequency at which the peak (minimum) magnitude occurs for band-
pass (band-stop) filters. For an RLC second-order filter, the resonance frequency is
given by ,
0
1
LC
e =
91
As shown in the figure , the frequency response is centered around the resonance fre-
quency. The 3-dB bandwidth is defined as the range of frequencies for which the
output magnitude is equal to or greater than the maximum output magnitude divided
by . This bandwidth can be calculated by equating the magnitude of the
normalized frequency response to . The bandwidth for a parallel
resonance filter corresponds to .
2
( )
H f
1 2 /
1
BW=
RC
Quality factor is a measurement of the sharpness of the frequency selectivity of a
filter. It is a measurement of how fast the frequency response drops off outside of the
pass band. The quality factor is the ratio of the resonant frequency, , to the
bandwidth . The quality factor for a parallel resistance filter is .
0
e
0
BW
Q
e
=
C
Q R
L
=
92
Series resonance
RLC filters can also be arranged in series, as shown in the figure. A series band-pass
filter has the same resonance frequency as its parallel equivalent. The bandwidth is
given by .
BW=
R
L
Its quality factor corresponds to .
1 L
Q
R C
=
93
1.5.2.2. Band-stop filters
A band-stop filter, also known as a band-block or notch filter, is created by
rearranging a series band-pass filter, as shown in the figure. The frequency response
of a band-stop filter is also sketched. The resonance frequency, bandwidth, and quality
factor are the same as those for series resonance band-pass filters.
94
95
96
1.6. Power systems and transmission lines
While energy is commonly found in nature in nonelectric forms, energy is often
converted to electric energy because electric energy can be transported easily with
high efficiency and reasonable cost.
The main elements of an electrical power system are generators, transformers,
transmission lines, loads, and protection and control equipment. These elements are
interconnected to enable the generation and transformation of electricity in sufficient
quantity to satisfy customers demand. This chapter introduces three-phase systems
and transmission lines and provides an overview of how to calculate inductance,
capacitance, and the equivalent circuit of a transmission line.
97
1.6.1. Three-phase systems
Consider the voltage induced by three coils (A, B, C) which are placed 120
o
apart and
are rotated in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Figure a. The three coils have an
equal number of turns and each coil rotates with the same angular velocity. Thus, the
voltage induced across each coil has the same peak, shape, and frequency. These
equal voltages are displaced by 120
o
from each other as shown in Figure b.
98
Three-phase systems can be looked upon as three separate generators, each voltage
out of phase by 120
o
. Three phase systems offer more efficient power transmission
compared to single phase systems.
The sinusoidal expression for each of the induced voltages corresponds to:
( )
( ) ( )
AN m
o
BN m
o o
CN m m
120
240 120
sin
sin
sin sin
e E t
e E t
e E t E t
e
e
e e
=
=
= = +
where E
m
is the maximum (peak) value of the induced voltage. As seen in Figure a,
a generator may include three sets of coils. The rotation of these sets of coils within a
magnetic field creates a time-varying voltage Figure b. These three coils supply a
given load. This section explains how the coils can be connected to a given load in
either a star (Y) or a delta () shape.
99
Figure a represents a simple three-phase circuit. Usually, generator coils are
connected in star (Y) to avoid power loss and lower production costs. As explained in
this section, generators are rarely -connected [see Figure b]. The phase voltages are
lower in a Y-connected generator, and thus, less insulation is required to maintain safe
transmission of power through the transmission lines. This leads to lower cost of
transmission lines and cables.
100
1.6.1.1. Phase sequence
The phase sequence of a three-phase circuit is the order in which the voltages or
currents attain their maximum value. For instance, the figure of waveform shows that
. peaks first, then then , which results in an order of ABCABCABC. Any
three adjacent letters can be selected to designate the phase sequence, but usually
the selected three are A, B, and C.
AN
e
BN
e
CN
e
101
1.6.1.2. Y-connected generators
At the power generation stations, three sinusoidal voltages are generated having the
same amplitude but displaced in phase by 120
o
. This is called a balanced voltage
source. The point at which all coils are connected is called the neutral point, N.
The voltages E
AN
, E
BN
, and E
CN
created by the generator are called phase voltages or
line-to-neutral voltages. Phase voltages are generally denoted by E
P
while the voltages
E
AB
(defined as E
AN
E
BN
), and so on, are called line voltages and generally denoted
by E
L
.
A four-wire system consists of the Y connection of three phases of a supply and a
neutral conductor (located at the middle of the connection, at point N). A four-wire
system allows the use of two voltages: the phase voltage and the line voltage. A four-
wire system is used when the load is not balanced .
102
1.6.1.3. Y-connected loads
A Y-connected load is shown in the figure below where the three line conductors are
each connected to a load and the outlets from the loads are connected at N to form
what is called the neutral point. In this text, Y and star are used interchangeably.
The voltages V
AN
, V
BN
and

V
CN
are called phase voltages or line-to-neutral voltages.
Phase voltages are generally denoted by V
P
, while the voltages V
AB
, V
BC
and V
CA
are
called line voltages and are generally denoted by V
L
.
For a balanced system: I
A
= I
B
= I
C
, V
AN
= V
BN
= V
CN
, V
AB
= V
BC
= V
CA
, Z
A
= Z
B
= Z
C

and the current in the neutral conductor I
N
= 0. Therefore, the neutral conductor is
unnecessary and it is often omitted.
The relationship between voltage phasors of different voltages may be written as
o
AN P
o
BN P
o
CN P
0
120
120
V V
V V
V V
= Z
= Z
= Z
103
The line voltages at the load terminals in terms
of phase voltages are obtained by applying
Kirchhoff's voltage law to the figure.
( )
( )
( )
o o o
AB AN BN P P
o o o
BC BN CN P P
o o o
CA CN AN P P
1 0 1 120 3 30
1 120 1 240 3 90
1 240 1 0 3 150
V V V V V
V V V V V
V V V V V
= = Z Z = Z
= = Z Z = Z
= = Z Z = Z
The voltage phasor diagram of the Y-connected loads is
shown in the figure. The relationship between the line
voltages and the phase voltages is demonstrated
graphically. Note that:
( ) ( )
1
o o o o
2 2 0 886 1 5
30 59 o
1 0 1 120 1 120 120
1 5 0 886 1 5 0 886
3 3 30 59
tan . / .
.
cos sin
. . . . e
.
j
j
j
j
e

+
+
Z Z =
= + = +
= = Z
104
Note that or . This means
that the phase of the set of line voltages leads the set of phase voltages by 30
o
. In
addition, considering Y-connected loads, the magnitude (and the rms) of the line
voltage is times higher than the magnitude (and the rms) of the phase voltage.
This fact can also be easily observed from the phasors diagram. In other words:
o
AB
3 30
AN
V V = Z
o o
L P P
3 30 3 30 V V V = Z = Z
3
L,rms P,rms
3 V V =
From the figure, we see that the phase currents are equal to their respective line
currents I
A
, I
B
and I
C
. Therefore, for a balanced Y connection, denoting the phase
current by I
p
, and the impedance of the load by Z , and .
It is clear that, assuming a balanced Y connection, the current through three elements
of a star connection has a phase difference. This phase difference is due to the 120 of
phase difference of the voltages and the phase difference due to the nature of the
load. For example , considering a resistive load, .
P P
/ I V Z =
L A P
I I I = =
o
B A
120 I I = Z
105
106
107
108
1.6.1.4. -connected loads
A -connected load is shown in the figure, where one port of each load is connected
to one port of the next load (note that loads are considered two-port elements). A
balanced -connected load consists of equal phase impedances. The figure shows that
line voltages are the same as phase voltages. Therefore, for a connection .
The relationship between line currents and phase currents is
L P
V V =
o
AB P
o
BC P
o
CA P
0
120
120
I I
I I
I I
= Z
= Z
= Z
109
To find the line currents in terms of the phase currents, apply Kirchhoff's voltage law,
which corresponds to: ( )
( )
( )
o o o
A AB CA P P
o o o
B BC AB P P
o o o
C CA BC P P
1 0 1 120 3 30
1 120 1 0 3 150
1 240 1 120 3 90
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I I I
= = Z Z = Z
= = Z Z = Z
= = Z Z = Z
The relationship between the line currents and the phase currents is demonstrated
graphically in the phasor diagram. It can be shown that .
Therefore, for a balanced connection, . Thus, the set of line cur-
rents lags the set of phase currents by 30
o
. In addition, the rms magnitude of the line
current is times that of the phase current, that is .
Assuming a balanced connection, the voltages across the three elements of the
connection have a phase difference composed of two components: the 120 phase
difference of the currents plus the phase difference due to the impedance of the load.
For example, considering a resistive load (i.e., zero phase difference due to the load),
o
A AB
3 30 I I = Z
o
L P
3 30 I I = Z
3
L,rms P,rms
3 I I =
o
BC AB
120 V V = Z
110
111
112
113
1.6.1.5. -Y and Y- transformations
It is possible to transform a star-connected
circuit into an equivalent -connected circuit
and vice versa. The corresponding circuits are
equivalent only for voltages and currents
external to the Y and circuits. Internally, the
voltages and currents are different.
AB CA
A
AB BC CA
Z Z
Z
Z Z Z
=
+ +
To transform a -connected circuit to an equivalent star-connected circuit, the
following equation is used , together with two other equa-
tions obtained by cyclic permutation of the indices.
To transform a star-connected circuit to an equivalent -connected circuit, the
following equation is used , together with two other
equations obtained by cyclic permutation of the indices.
A B B C C A
AB
C
Z Z Z Z Z Z
Z
Z
+ +
=
114
Note that all to Y transformation formulas have the same denominator, which is the
sum of the impedances. Each numerator is the product of the two impedances
that are adjacent to the Y impedance being found.
On the other hand, all Y to transformation formulas have the same numerator,
which is the sum of the different products of the pairs of the Y impedances. Each
denominator is the Y impedance that is opposite to the calculated impedance. If
impedances are equal, all Y impedances will be equal, and the equations reduce to
Y
3
Z
Z
A
=
Similarly, if Y impedances are equal, all impedances will be equal and the equations
reduce to
Y
3 Z Z
A
=
115
116
117
1.6.1.6. Power in three-phase systems
The average power dissipated in a three-phase load is equal to the sum of the power
dissipated in each phase. If a load is balanced, then the total power, P , will correspond
to three times the power consumed by one phase. The power consumed in a one-
phase system (assuming a resistive load) is .
Replacing for the power factor ; R
P
is the real part of Z
P
, and using
, we obtain , where is the phase angle between
the voltage , , and current, .
The total power is three times that of the power consumed in each phase, that is,

Therefore, for both star and connections, the total power corresponds to:

The apparent power (total volt-amperes) is defined as:

P P,rms P,rms
W cos ( ) P V I =
P P
cos / R Z =
P,rms P,rms P
V V Z =
2
P P,rms P
P I R =
P
V
P
I
2
T P P,rms P,rms P,rms P
3 3 3 W cos ( ) P P V I I R = = =
( )
T L,rms L,rms
3 W cos P V I =
( )
T L,rms L,rms
3 V A S V I =
118
119
120
121
1.6.1.7. Comparison of Y and load connections
Loads connected in dissipate three times more power than those same loads
connected in star to the same three-phase supply. Note that power dissipation
corresponds to . Therefore, the line current in a -connected system is
. times that of a star-connected system.
Therefore, equating the power dissipation of the star-connected and -connected
loads, is equivalent to equating their phase currents. To do so, the line voltage in the
star system must be times that of the system. Thus, for a given power
dissipation, a system is associated with larger line currents and a star system is
associated with larger line voltages.
Larger line currents in system result in more voltage drop across the transmission
line and the voltage drop is undesired. In order to maintain a small voltage drop across
the transmission line, the transmission lines resistance has to be reduced, e. g. by
increasing its cross section. A large cross section results in a higher cost and greater
weight. Thus, a star connection is generally preferred over a connection.
2
T P,rms P
3 P I R =
3
3
122
1.6.1.8. Advantages of three-phase systems
Three-phase systems offer several advantages:
1. For a given amount of power transmitted through a system, three-phase
systems require conductors with a smaller cross section than single-phase systems.
This means saving copper (or aluminum) and thus lowers original installation costs. In
addition, the weight of cables in a three-phase system is lower, also lowering the
installation costs.
2. Two voltages (phase voltage/line voltage) are available.
3. When compared to single-phase motors, three-phase motors, as loads, are very
robust, relatively cheap, are generally smaller, have self-starting properties, provide a
steadier output, and require little maintenance.
123
1.6.2. Transmission lines
The purpose of a transmission network is to transfer electric energy from generating
units to distribution systems, which ultimately supply the load to end users, for
example, city residents. Transmission lines also interconnect neighboring utilities,
which permit not only economic dispatch of power within regions during normal
conditions, but also the transfer of power between regions during emergencies.
124
In order to increase the power transmission efficiency, the voltage at the generator is
stepped up to a high level (such as 230 kV) by a transformer for transmission.
Moreover, at the transformer near the city, the voltage is stepped down to a low level
for household use (such as 220 V in Vietnam). Assuming there is no power loss in the
transformer, a high transmission voltage would result in a low transmission current.
For a certain transmission line resistance, R , the power consumed by the transmission
line is . Therefore, power loss in the transmission is low for a low trans-
mission current and the use of step up and step down transformers increases
power transmission efficiency.
Transformers are then used to reduce the current through the cables and accordingly
the cable diameter, and maintain power distribution costs in a reasonable level.

2
P I R =
125
All transmission lines in a power system exhibit the electrical properties of resistance,
inductance, capacitance, and conductance. The series inductance and shunt capaci-
tance are due to the effects of magnetic and electric fields around the conductor. The
shunt conductance accounts for leakage currents flowing across insulators and ionized
pathways in the air. The leak age currents are negligible compared to the current
flowing in the transmission lines. Therefore, the shunt conductance that represents
the leakage current is often ignored.
A transmission line is considered as a distributed (and not a lumped) element. An
element is called lumped if its dimensions are much smaller than the wavelength of
the current or voltage. If the dimension of an element is in the order of wavelength, it
is called distributed. (At 50 Hz frequency, the wavelength is 310
8
/50

m= 6 000km).
A distributed element such as transmission line can be modeled as a combination of
resistors, capacitors, and inductors, that are uniformly distributed along the line form
the series impedance. This problem will be considered in details in Chapter 3.
126
PROBLEMS
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128
129
130
131
132
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