Chapter 2 342 Transformer 4

Fida Muhammad (Air University)
For Knowledge Induction Heating

Non-contact heating process uses high
Induction heating
Non-contact heating process
uses high frequency electricity to heat materials that are
electrically conductive
1. What makes the conductive material to heat up?
Eddy current in conductive non-magnetic materials (Cu) & eddy
& Hysterisis in conductive-magnetic materials (iron & steel)
2. What about plastics?
Page#90 Determining the Values of Components in the
Transformer Model
jX
P
R
C
jX
M
R
P
R
S
jX
S

What are the components of transformer model?

Why to find the values of components in the transformer
model?
Transformer (T/F) Characteristics (distinctiveness)
Efficiency (q) Voltage Regulation (VR)
| | | |
| |
100
=
load _ full V
load _ full V load _ no V
VR %
s
s s
Transformer (T/F) Characteristics (distinctiveness)
Efficiency (q)
Voltage Regulation (VR)
Input Power
Losses Input Power
Input Power
Output Power
=
= q
Eddy Current Losses
Hysterisis Losses
Copper Losses
(R
P
& R
S
)
Voltage Drop
Across X
P
& X
S
Voltage Drop
(R
P
& R
S
)
In series
voltage
drop
Question: What about X
M
Not used for Efficiency. Why?

X
M
- Why not for VR ?

Transformer Model
How to find Values of Components ?
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test
Do the Following Test
R
eqp

jX
eqp
aV
S
I
S
/a
V
P
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
I
P
find R
C
& X
M
find R
eqp
, X
eqp
OR

R
eqs
, X
eqs
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter

V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)
Transformer

Open
Circuit
Ampere
Meter

Volt
Meter

Figure 2-19 Connection for
transformer open-circuit test

Open Circuit Test
Apply rated primary (input) Voltage
I
O
No-Load current flows primary
Wattmeter reads ..? Core losses
small
Scale
(I
O
)
Why?
Large
Scale
Why ?
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter

V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)
Transformer

Ampere
Meter

Volt
Meter

transformer short-circuit test

A
Secondary
Short Circuit

Short Circuit Test
large
scale
(I
O
)
Why?
small
Scale
Why ?
Apply rated current
Full load I
P
& I
S
current flows
Wattmeter reads ?..... I
2
R (Copper)
Transformer Model
Tests : Find Values of Components
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)
Transformer
Open
Circuit
Ampere
Meter
Volt
Meter

I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)
Transformer
Open
Circuit
Ampere
Meter
Volt
Meter

I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)
Transformer
Ampere
Meter
Volt
Meter

A
Secondary
Short
Circuit
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)
Transformer
Ampere
Meter
Volt
Meter

A
Secondary
Short
Circuit
Apply rated primary (input) Voltage
I
O
No-Load current flows primary
Wattmeter reads ..? Core losses
Apply rated current
Full load I
P
& I
S
current flows
Wattmeter reads I
2
R (Copper)
A 20-kVA, 8000/240-V, 60-Hz T/F. The open-circuit test (OCT) and
the short-circuit test (SCT) were performed on the primary side of
the T/F, and the following data were taken:
Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit referred
to the primary side, and sketch the circuit.
OCT (on primary)

V
oc
= 8000 V

I
oc
= 0.214 A

P
oc
= 400 W
SCT (on primary)

V
sc
= 489 V

I
sc
= 2.5 A

P
sc
= 240 W
Example 2.2 (page 92)
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

A
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

A
Answer
OCT (on primary)

V
oc
= 8000 V

I
oc
=I
o
= 0.214 A

P
oc
= 400 W ??
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

I
OC
=I
0
=I
P
=0.214
V
OC
8000
I
C

I
M

R
C
X
M
P
OC
=400W
V
OC
OCT (on primary)

V
oc
= 8000 V

I
oc
=I
o
= 0.214 A

P
oc
= 400 W ???
I
OC
=I
0
=0.214
V
P
=8000
I
C

I
M

R
C
X
M
P
OC
=400W
oc oc oc oc
cos I V P u =
u Z = Y Y
2336 0
214 0 8000
400
.
. x
cos
oc
= = u
0 1
5 76 2336 0 . . cos
oc
= = u

mho x .
.
Y
5
10 7 2
8000
214 0

= =
oc oc
oc
oc
I V
P
cos = u
oc
OC
. OC
V
I
u Z =
=
=
8000
214 0
0 5
5 76 10 7 2 . x . Z =

Y=1/Z
OCT (on primary)

V
oc
= 8000 V

I
oc
=I
o
= 0.214 A

P
oc
= 400 W
I
OC
=I
0
=0.214
V
P
=8000
I
C

I
M

R
C
X
M
u Z = Y Y
oc
OC
. OC
V
I
u Z =
=
=
8000
214 0
0 5
5 76 10 7 2 . x . Z =

u
oc
=76.5o
jB
M
G
c
=Y
oc
cosu
oc
=Y
oc
sinu
oc
Y
oc

=2.7x10
-5
mho
) circuits parallel ( ce tan Admit
Y
oc
=Y
oc
cosu
oc
- jY
oc
sinu
oc
C
C
G
R
1
=
M
M
B
X
1
=
M C oc
jB G Y =
u

R= Zcosu
Z

X= Zsinu
u
G=Ycosu
Y

B=Ysinu
jB G Y =
Y=Ycosu - jY sinu

u Z Y
I
R

jX

V
jX R Z + =
Z=Zcosu + jZ sinu

u Z Z
Z
Y=1/Z
R
G
1
=
jX
jB
1
=
Why
Negative ?
Why
Negative ?
OCT (on primary)

V
oc
= 8000 V

I
oc
=I
o
= 0.214 A

P
oc
= 400 W
I
OC
=I
0
=0.214
V
P
=8000
I
C

I
M

R
C
X
M
M C oc
jB G Y =
Y
oc
=Y
oc
cosu
oc
- jY
oc
sin u
oc
M C oc
X
j
R Z
1 1 1
=
Y
oc
=2.7x10
-5
cos76.5 -J2.7x10
-5
sin76.5
Y=6.25x10
-6
-j 2.53x10
-6

Z=159000 + j38400 O
R
C
=159kO
X
M
=
38.4kO
M
M
C
C
oc
oc
X
B ;
R
G ;
Z
Y
1 1 1
= = =
u
oc
=76.5o
jB
M
G
c
Y
oc

=2.7x10
-5
mho
Answer
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

A
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

A
SCT (on primary)

V
sc
= 489 V

I
sc
= 2.5 A

P
sc
= 240 W ??
I
SC
=I
rated
=215
R
eqp
jX
eqp
V
SC
=489
P
SC
=240W
V
SC
SCT (on primary)

V
sc
= 489 V

I
sc
= 2.5 A

P
sc
= 240 W
I
SC
=I
rated
=215
R
eqp
jX
eqp
V
SC
=489
sc sc sc sc
cos I V P u =
sc sc sc
Z Z u Z =
196 0
5 2 489
240
.
. x
cos
sc
= = u
0 1
68 76 196 0 . . cos
sc
= = u

ohms .
.
Z
sc
6 195
5 2
489
= =
sc sc
sc
sc
I V
P
cos = u
sc
. sc
sc
I
V
u Z =
=
=
5 2
489
0
68 76 6 195 . . Z =
SCT (on primary)

V
sc
= 489 V

I
sc
= 2.5 A

P
sc
= 240 W
I
SC
=I
rated
=215
R
eqp
jX
eqp
V
SC
=489
sc sc sc
Z Z u Z =
0
68 76 6 195 . . Z =
=Z
sc
cosu
sc
) eqp ( SC ) eqp ( SC ) eqp ( SC
jX R Z + =
u
oc
=76.68

R
SC
jX
SC
=jZ
sc
sinu
sc
Z
SC

Z
sc
=Z
sc
cosu
sc
+ jZ
sc
sin u
sc
Z
sc
=195.6

cos76.68 +j195.6sin76.68
Z
eqp
=38.4

+j 192 O
=38.4O
=j192O
=195.6

Question:- For the same transformer given in the previous
example, if the OCT & SCT are performed on the secondary
side, (a) what will be the Voltage, current and power readings
for the OCT and SCT.
(b) find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit
referred to the secondary side. Compare the data with part (a)
and sketch the circuit diagram.
Assignment ( Due Friday for section B & Saturday for section A
R
eqp

jX
eqp
aV
S
I
S
/a
V
P
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
I
P
38.4O
j192O
159kO
38.4kO
| | | |
| |
| | | |
| |
100
load full V
load full V load no V
/a V V load - no at since
100
load full V
Regulation Voltage %
s
s p/a
P S
s
s s

=
=

=
The voltage regulation of a transformer is the change in the
magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage from no-load to
full-load.
2.7 (page 100) Transformer Voltage Regulation(VR) & Efficiency
| | | |
| |
100
load full V
Regulation Voltage %
S
S P/a

=
S S eq S eq
a
V
V I jX I R
P
+ + =
V
Req

V
jXeq

S jXeq q Re
a
V
V V V
P
+ + =
=R
eq
I
S
=X
eq
I
S
I
S

R
eqp
jX
eqp
L
O
A
d
V
S

a
V
P
Transformer Voltage Regulation & Vector Diagram
| | | |
| |
100
load full V
R V %
S
S P/a

=
Transformer Voltage Regulation & Vector Diagram
I
S

V
Req

V
jXeq

=R
eq
I
S
=X
eq
I
S
R
eqp
jX
eqp
L
O
A
d
V
S

a
V
P
S eq S eq S
a
V
I jX I R V
P
+ = | | | | load full V load no V
S P/a

| |
100
load full V
R V %
s

+
=
S eq S eq
I jX I R
The VR of the
T/F depends on
the voltage
magnitude of
these series
parameters.
I
S
V
Req
I
S

V
Req

V
jXeq

=R
eq
I
S
=X
eq
I
S
R
eqp
jX
eqp
L
o
a
d
V
S

a
V
P
V
S
S jXeq q Re
a
V
V V V
P
+ + =
V
jXeq
V
P
/a

Phase relation
between I
S
&
V
Req
?
Phase relation
between I
S
&
V
Xeq
?
Fig 2-26 (page 101) Vector Dig
Lagging Power Factor
Lagging
Power Factor
Load
? 100
V
V V
VR %
sfl
sfl p/a
=
=
Positive
V
P
/a > V
S
Z-u
V
S
is assumed to
be at angle 0
o
(

V
S
Z-u). All other
voltages & currents
are compared to
this reference

I
S

V
Req

V
jXeq

R
eqp
jX
eqp
L
o
a
d
V
S

a
V
P
V
eq
| :Angle between V
s
& V
P/a
u

|

V
eq
o

o : Angle between V
Req
& V
Xeq
u : Power Factor angle (Between V
s
& I
s
)

Vector Diagram
Z-u
V
S
I
S

V
Req

V
jXeq

=R
eq
I
S
=X
eq
I
S
R
eqp
jX
eqp
L
o
a
d
V
S

a
V
P
S jXeq q Re
a
V
V V V
P
+ + =
V
P
/a

Fig 2-27(a) Vector Dig
Unity Power Factor
Unity
Power Factor
Load
? 100
V
V V
VR %
sfl
sfl p/a
=
=
Positive
V
P
/a > V
S
V
S
I
S

V
Req

V
jXeq

=R
eq
I
S
=X
eq
I
S
R
eqp
jX
eqp
L
o
a
d
V
S

a
V
P
S jXeq q Re
a
V
V V V
P
+ + =
V
P
/a

Fig 2-27(a) Vector Dig
Leading PF
V
R
e
q

Leading
Power Factor
Load
? 100
V
V V
VR %
sfl
sfl p/a
=
= Negative
V
P
/a <V
S
Zu
Input Power
Output Power
= q
The efficiency for a power transformer is between 0.9 to 0.99.

The higher the rating of a transformer, the greater is its efficiency.
Transformer Efficiency
Input Power
Losses
= q 1
Input Power
Losses Input Power
= q
u + +
+
= q
cos I V P P
P P
s s loss core loss copper
loss core loss copper
1
Efficiency - Points to remember
1. Core losses
(Hysteris & eddy)
are fixed losses independent of the
load (load current)
2. Copper losses
(winding losses-I
2
R)
are variable losses and depends
on load
u + +
+
=
cos I V P P
P P
Effciency r Transforme
s s loss core loss copper
loss core loss copper
1
When Transformer operate at its maximum Efficiency?
Core losses (fixed losses) = Copper losses (variable losses)
The above statement is also valid for Motors & Generators
u +
= q
cos I V P x
P x
s s loss core
loss core
max
2
2
1
A 15-kVA, 2300/230-V, 60-Hz T/F. The open-circuit test (OCT) and
the short-circuit test (SCT) were performed on the primary side of
the T/F, and the following data were taken:
OCT (on primary)

V
oc
= 2300 V

I
oc
= 0.21 A

P
oc
= 50 W
SCT (on primary)

V
sc
= 47 V

I
sc
= 6.0 A

P
sc
= 160 W
Example 2.5 (page 103)
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

A
I
P
(t)
Wattmeter
V
P
(t)
V
A
V(t)

A
(b) Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit
referred to the LV-side.
(You can do this part: refer to slide#9) .
(a) Find the impedances of the approximate equivalent circuit
referred to the HV-side (You can do this part: refer to slide#9) .
38.4O
j192O
159kO
R
eqp
jX
eqp
aV
S
I
S
/a
V
P
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
I
P
R
eqp
jX
eqp
aV
S
I
S
/a
V
P
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
I
P
j11kO 105kO
4.45O
J6.45O
Figure:2-29(a)
R
eqs
jX
eqs
V
S
I
S
V
P
/a
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
aI
P
R
eqs
jX
eqs
V
S
I
S
V
P
/a
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
aI
P
38.4O
159kO
38.4kO
Figure:2-29(b)
j110kO 1050kO
0.0445O J0.0645O
(c) Calculate the full-load (rated-load) voltage regulation:
(i) at 0.8 lagging power factor
(ii) at unity (1) power factor
(iii) at 0.8 leading power factor
R
eqs
jX
eqs
V
S
I
S
V
P
/a
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
aI
P
R
eqs
jX
eqs
V
S
I
S
V
P
/a
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
aI
P
38.4O
159kO 38.4kO
Figure:2-29(b)
j110kO 1050kO
0.0445O J0.0645O
R
eqs
jX
eqs
V
S
I
S
V
P
/a
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
aI
P
R
eqs
jX
eqs
V
S
I
S
V
P
/a
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
aI
P
38.4O
159kO 38.4kO
Figure:2-29(b)
j110kO 1050kO
0.0445O J0.0645O
We can use any of the
referred circuits to find
VR. Its easy to use
figure referred to the
secondary side.
S jXeq q Re
a
V
V V V
P
+ + =
S jeq S eq S
a
V
I jX I R V
P
+ + =
? 100
V
V V
VR %
sfl
sfl p/a
=
=
V
S
=V
sf
=230V - Given

V
p/a
=unknown

To get V
p/a
find R
eq
I
S
& X
eq
I
S

R
eq
=0.0445O; X
eq
=0.0645O
from SCT & OCT.
I
S
=I
S(rated)
un-known
V
a
V
o
P
0 230Z =
rated s,
rated
rated , S
V
S
I is F / T this of side
ondary sec the on current load ull F
=
How to find I
S
=I
S(rated)
?
I
S

V
Req

V
jXeq

R
eq
I
S,rated X
eq
I
S,rated
R
eqp
jX
eqp
L
O
A
d
V
S

a
V
P
0.0445O
0.0645O
I
S
=I
S,rated
Parallel circuit is omitted.
Why ??
2 65
000 15
.
230
VA ,
I
rated , S
= =
lagging . PF at
. . I
rated , S
8 0
9 36 2 65
0
=
Z =
0
9 36 2 65 . . Z =
) A . . )( . (
o
9 36 2 65 0445 0 Z O +
) A . . )( . ( j
o
9 36 2 65 0645 0 Z O + V
a
V
o P
0 230Z =
S jeq S eq S
a
V
I jX I R V
P
+ + =
V . .
o
1 53 21 4 Z + V . .
o
9 36 9 2 Z +
? 100
V
V V
VR %
sfl
sfl p/a
=
=
) . ( ) VA ( 8 0 15000
% 1 .
230 85 . 34
2 100
230V
2
VR %
sfl
=
=
V V
Angles are not used in
VR has no unit why?
Input Power
Output Power
= q
What is the
problem with
this equation ?
(e) What is the efficiency of the T/F at full load with a PF=0.8
lagging?
core Cu S S
S S
P P cos I V
cos I V
+ + u
u
=
Input Power
Losses Input Power
= q
Use this
equation
V
S
I
S
=S (apparent power) and cosu=0.8 lagging are known
Power input is unknown. We can use input equation, if the T/F
circuit is referred to the primary side. - Try & find efficiency
V
a
V
o
P
0 230Z = V . .
o
1 53 21 4 Z + V . .
o
9 36 9 2 Z +
V . .
o
4 0 85 234 Z =
P
Cu
= (I
S
)
2
R
eq
= (65.2A)
2
(0.0445O) = 189 Watts
( )
Watts .
V .
R
a
V
P
C
P
core
5 52
1050
85 234
2
2
=
O
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
0
0
03 98 100
5 52 189 8 0 15000
8 0 15000
. x
W . W ) . ( ) VA (
) . ( ) VA (
=
+ +
=
Input Power
Output Power
= q
core Cu S S
S S
P P cos I V
cos I V
+ + u
u
=
Why the SCT cupper losses(160W) and OCT core losses(50W)
are not used in efficiency calculation ?
Open circuit test at the primary is performed at 2300 V. Where
as with rate-load (PF=0.8 lagging) V
P
=234.85x10=2348.5V, i.e
48.5V more than the OCT.
SCT is performed
with I
SC
=6A, where
as I
P(rated)
= 6.52A
What is the condition for the maximum efficiency in the T/F?
Core Losses = Copper Losses
P
core
= P
copper
In the previous problem find the current at maximum efficiency?

I
2
R
seq
= 52.5 W
Amps .
.
.
I
max
34 34
0445 0
5 52
=
O
=
T/F will operate at almost half the rated load (half of T/F capacity)

Example 2-5 Page # 103
Solution
38.4O
j192O
159kO
R
eqp
jX
eqp
aV
S
I
S
/a
V
P
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
I
P
R
eqp
jX
eqp
aV
S
I
S
/a
V
P
I
O
I
M
I
C
R
C
jX
M
I
P
j11kO 105kO
4.45O
J6.45O
Figure:2-29(a)
Continued
A single-phase, 100-kVA, 1000:100-V, 60-Hz transformer has the
following test results:

Open-circuit test (HV side open): 100 V, 6 A, 400 W
Short-circuit test (LV side shorted): 50 V, 100 A, 1800 W

Draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the high-voltage
side. Label impedances numerically in ohms and in per unit.

Determine the voltage regulation at rated secondary current with 0.6
power factor lagging. Assume the primary is supplied with rated voltage

Determine the efficiency of the transformer when the secondary current is
75% of its rated value and the power factor at the load is 0.8 lagging with
a secondary voltage of 98 V across the load
Practice Problem
A 20-kVA, 8000:277-V distribution transformer has the following
resistances and reactances:

The excitation branch impedances are referred to the high-voltage side.

a) Find the equivalent circuit of the transformer referred to the high-voltage
side.
b)
b) Find the per unit equivalent circuit of this transformer.

c) Assume that the transformer is supplying rated load at 277 V and 0.8
power factor lagging. What is this transformers input voltage? What is
its voltage regulation?

d) What is this transformers efficiency under the conditions of part (c)?
R
P
= 32 ohm

X
P
= 45 ohm

R
C
= 250,000 ohm
R
S
= 0.05 ohm

X
S
= 0.06 ohm

X
M
= 30,000 ohm

Example 4
Neglect
PU System
Quantity Base
Quantity Actual
Value PU =
| |
| |
| | | | | |
| |
| |
| | | |
| |
| |
| |
base
ohm
PU
base
base
base
base
base
base
base
base
base
base base base
base base base base base base
base
base
base
Z
Z
Z
V
I
Y
VA
V
S
V
I
V
Z X R
I V VA S Q P
V
VA
I
=
=
= = = = =
= = = =
=
2 2
Per unit system, a system of dimensionless parameters, is used for
computational convenience and for readily comparing the performance
of a set of transformers or a set of electrical machines.
Where actual quantity is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.
[VA]
base
and [V]
base
are chosen first.
| | | | | | | |
| | | |
| | | |
ratio turns
V
V
VA VA
sec
base
pri
base
sec
base
pri
base
=
=
Next Time
Chapter # 3
Power Electronics
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